pathway of large intestine
ileocecal sphincter, cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, rectum, anal canal
functions of liver (11)
emulsification, absorption, and metabolism of fats, carbohydrate (to bloodstream or storage) and protein (deamination) metabolism, processing of drugs/hormones, excretion of bilirubin into bile, synthesis of bile salts for small intest, storage (glycogen, vitamins, and iron/copper), phagocytosis (by Kupffer cells), activation of vit D
locations of salivary gland pairs
parotid glands (anterior to ears), submandibular glands (under mandible), sublingual glands (under tongue)
types of peritoneum (7)
parietal (lines abdominopelvic wall), visceral (aka serosa, liens organs), greater omentum (fatty apron over intestines), lesser omentum (divides stomach from liver), falciform ligament (suspends liver from diaphragm and ant. wall), mesentery (fan shaped and binds jejunum to ileum to post. wall), and mesocolon (holds colon to post. wall)
accessory organs of the digestive system (6)
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladde
lobes of liver (4)
left and right lobes separated by falciform ligament, quadrate lobe is next to the gallbladder and inferior to the caudal lobe
muscles of the stomach
oblique (inner layer, pushes downwards), circular layer (middle, squeezes), longitudinal layer (outer, pushes downwards)
regions/anatomy of stomach
cardiac (entry point), fundus (top portion), body, pylorus (pyloric antrum, canal, sphincter), lesser curvature (top, contacting liver), greater curvature (bottom, connected to omentum)
structures of a tooth
enamel (outermost covering), dentin (deep to enamel), crown (top of tooth), neck (leads into gum), gingivae (gum line), roots (canal holds blood vessels and nerves), periodontal ligament (holds tooth in areas called cementum)
functions of the digestive system
ingestion, secretion (saliva, bile, HCl, amylase, etc), mixing/propulsion, absorption (occurs in small intestine), defecation
functions of pancreas
secretion of pancreatic juice: water, salts, sodium bicarbonate (slightly alkaline to neutralize HCl and stop action of pepsin), pancreatic amylase (digests starch), protein digesting amylase (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase), and triglyceride digesting enzymes (pancreated lipase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease)
structures of large intestine (7)
ileocecal sphincter, cecum, ascending, transcending, descending, rectum, anal canal
alimentary canal (6)
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines
accessory digestive organs (6)
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
location of digestion
physical breakdown of food, begins in mouth (esp. starch) and mostly occurs in the stomach and small intestine
location of absorption
nutrients taken from food in the small intestine
components of mouth
cheek = buccinator muscles and CT covered by skin/ mucous membrane, lips w/labial frenulum, tongue w/lingual frenulum, oral vestibule (space b/w lips and teeth), hard & soft palates, uvula, fauces (opening b/w oral cavity and oropharynx
movement of small intestine
segmentations (localized contractions to mix chyme with digestive juices and contact mucosa) and peristalsis
the most stressed area of the digestive system
small intestine - receives from stomach, liver, and gallbladder
movement of large intestine
`churning (mixing w/in haustra to maximize water reabsorption) and mass peristalsis to move waste into rectum
functions of the gallbladder
stores, concentrates, and delivers bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct
function of bile
bile salts aid in the emulsification of fats and the absorption of digested lipids
portal lobule
responsible for bile secretion
portal triad
bile duct, branch of hepatic artery, branch of hepatic portal vein
location of head of pancreas
nestled next to the duodenum
gastric juice
the combined secretions of mucus neck, chief, and parietal cells (2-3L/day), turns bolus to chyme in the stomach
glucose storage
excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen until released to stabilize blood sugar
submucosal plexus
sensory and motor ENS neurons/fibers that innervate the submucosa to regulate movement of mucosa and vasoconstriction of blood vessels
secretory cells
in the submucosa to control the secretions (digestive enzymes and mucus) of the GI tract
permanent vs. deciduous
32 grown up teeth & 20 baby teeth
functions of stomach enzymes
break down of proteins and carbohydrates and some break down of fats to turn bolus to chyme
stomach enzymes (7)
gastric juice = gastrin + HCl + intrinsic factor + gastric lipase + pepsinogen + mucus
pancreatic enzymes (8)
pancreatic juice = sodium bicarbonate + pancreatic amylase + trypsin + chymotrypsin + carboxypeptidase + pancreatic lipase + ribonuclease + deoxyribonuclease
small intestine enzymes (9)
intestinal juice = lysozyme + a-dextrinase + maltase + sucrase + lactase + aminopeptidase + dipeptidase + nucleosidases + phosphatases
beginning and end of carbohydrate digestion
starts in mouth with salivary amylase, continues in stomach, ends in small intestine with lactase/maltase/sucrase/a-dextrinase
beginning and end of protein digestion
begins in the stomach with pepsin and ends in the small intestine with aminopeptidase and dipeptidase
order of layers of the gastrointestinal tract
(deep to superficial)
mucosa (epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae), submucosa, muscularis (circular, longitudinal)
stomach has an oblique layer - an extra inner muscularis layer
microvili
tiny hair-like structures unique to the vili of the small intestines that function to increase surface area for absorption and also release the brush-border enzymes (for digesting carbs, proteins, and nucleotides)
secretion of bile
hepatocytes (liver cells which are specialized epithelium)
location of hemo/hematopoiesis
bone marrow of axial skeleton. stem cells are formed and divide into mature cells withing marrow (except lympoid stem cells, which divide into lymphocytes elsewhere). Pluripotent stem cells - derived from mesenchyme; myeloid - forms RBC, platelets, monocytes, and granular leukocytes.
functions of blood (3)
transportation (oxygen from lungs to tissues, nutrients from GI tract, hormones from endocrine glands, removal of wastes), regulation (homeostasis of body fluids, acts as buffer for pH to be 7.4, body temp), protection (clotting to prevent excessive loss, WBC defense, blood proteins like antbodies)
erythrocyte lifespan
120 weeks/4 months. erythropoeises produces proerythroblasts (nucleus) which mature to reticulocytes (no nucleus and biconcave shaped); dead RBCs are removed by phagocytic macrophages of the spleen and liver
anemia
having reduced oxygen carrying capacity. you might have abnormal cell components, not enough iron in your body, destruction of RBCs or marrow, or excessive RBC loss due to bleeding.
pernicious anemia
insufficient hemapoeises means the stomach won't produce enough intrinsic factor and the small intestines can't absorb enough B12 (needed for RBC production)
megaloblastic anemia
red bone marrow produces abnormally large RBCs which are less efficient at transportation
functions and characteristics of WBC's (5) listed in decreasing presence in blood
neutrophils (bacterial infections; multi-lobed nucleus), lymphocytes (viral infections, some leukemias; large, round nucleus), monocytes (phagocytic macrophages for TB, some viruses/fungi/leukemias; kidney/horseshoe shaped nucleus), eosinophils (allergic reaction, parasic worms, autoimmune; red/orange granules), basophils (histamine release, some leukemias/cancers; blue/purple granules)
granular vs. agranular WBCs
granular = eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils. agranular = lymphocytes, monocytes
WBCs and immune response (8 infections/conditions)
bacteria = neutrophils; parasites = eosinphils; leukemia = basophils/lymphocytes/monocytes; allergies = eosinophils; inflammatory allergies = basophils, cancers = basophils; virus = monocytes/lymphocytes; fungi = monocytes; chronic diseases like TB = monocytes
Principle Functions of Respiratory System
Gas transport and gas exchange.
Others: regulating blood pH, filters inhaled air, produces sounds, rids body of small amounts of water and heat in exhaled air
tissue that lines trachea
solid C-shaped cartilage rings that provide a semi-rigid support and smooth muscle
medullary rhythmicity
Upper respiratory
cartilages of nose (be able to identify in pic)
Type 1 Alveolar Cells
forms continuous lining of the alveolar wall; main site of gas exchange (most important, cells that form the site of gas exchange)
Type 2 Alveolar Cells
Also called septal cells – fewer than type I; consists of microvilli and secrete alveolar fluid (main function is to secrete alveolar fluid, fluid allows for gas exchange)
Right Lung
Oblique and horizontal fissure, 3 lobes. Hilus located on left and right lungs.
Left lung
only 2 lobes, heart sits posteriorly to lungs at cardiac notch. Contains oblique fissure and hilus. Oblique fissure in the left lung separates superior lobe from inferior lobe
characteristics of normal exhalation
Muscles of inspiration
synergist: sternocleidomastoid and scalenes
antagonists: external intercostals
prime mover: diaphraghm
muscles of expiration
relaxation of the external intercostals, which moves ribs inferiorly, which relaxes the diaphragm (internal intercostals,
carina
Order of oxygen and carbon dioxide as it travels through the respiratory membrane
the respiratory membrane extends from the alveolar air space to blood plasma and consists or 4 layers:
1. alveolar wall: a layer of type I and type II alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages
2. epithelial basement membrane: underlying alveolar wall
3. capillary basement membrane: fused to epithelial basement membrane
4: endothelial cells: of capillary wall
branches of respiratory tract from trachea onward
(bethany please check accuracy)
trachea--> bronchus--> bronchi--> segmented bronchi--> lobule--> terminal bronchioles--> respiratory bronchioles--> alveolar ducts--> alveolar sacs--> alveoli
respiratory zone
area of respiratory zone that is involved with gas exchange.
areas of respiratory system involved with gas exchange
respiration control centers in brain
neurons in the medullary respiratory center in the medulla oblangota plus the pontine respiratory group in the pons