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Pre-Pharm > A&P 22: The Respiratory System > Flashcards

A&P 22: The Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Respiratory System

A

system that supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide

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2
Q

Respiration

A

pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, and internal respiration are collectively known as this function

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3
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

breathing; air moving in and out of the lungs (during inspiration and expiration) so the gases there are continuously changed and refreshed

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4
Q

External respiration

A

oxygen diffuses from the lungs to the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the lungs

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5
Q

Transport of respiratory gases

A

oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissue cells of the body, and carbon dioxide is transported from the tissue cells to the lungs; the cardiovascular system accomplishes this transport using blood as the transporting fluid

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6
Q

Internal respiration

A

oxygen diffuses from blood to tissue cells, and carbon dioxide diffuses from tissue cells to blood

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7
Q

Respiratory zone

A

actual site of gas exchange; composed of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli, all microscopic structures

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8
Q

Conducting zone

A

includes all other respiratory passageways, which provide fairly rigid conduits for air to reach the gas exchange sites

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9
Q

Nostrils (nares)

A

external openings of the nose

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10
Q

Nasal cavity

A

internal cavity lying in and posterior to the external nose

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11
Q

Nasal septum

A

the nasal cavity is divided by this midline, formed anteriorly by the septal cartilage and posteriorly by the vomer bone and perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone

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12
Q

Posterior nasal apertures

A

the nasal cavity is continuous posteriorly with the nasal portion of the pharynx through these “funnels” called choanae

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13
Q

Hard palate

A

where the palate is supported by the palatine bones and processes of the maxillary bones

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14
Q

Soft palate

A

the unsupported posterior portion is this muscular palate

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15
Q

Nasal vestibule

A

part of the nasal cavity just superior to the nostrils; lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and numerous hair follicles

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16
Q

Vibrissae

A

nose hairs; filter coarse particles from inspired air

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17
Q

Olfactory mucosa

A

small patch of this lines the slitlike superior region of the nasal cavity and contains smell receptors in its olfactory epithelium

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18
Q

Olfactory epithelium

A

where smell receptors are contained

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19
Q

Respiratory mucosa

A

lines most of the nasal cavity; pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, containing scattered goblet cells, that rests on a lamina propia richly supplied with seromucous nasal glands

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20
Q

Paranasal sinuses

A

the nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of these chambers; located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones

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21
Q

Sinusitis

A

inflamed sinuses

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22
Q

Pharynx

A

funnel-shaped organ that connects the nasal cavity and the mouth superiorly to the larynx and esophagus inferiorly

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23
Q

Nasopharynx

A

posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to the sphenoid bone, superior to the level of the soft palate; part of the pharynx serving only as an air passageway

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24
Q

Pharyngeal tonsil

A

AKA adenoids; traps and destroys pathogens entering the nasopharynx in air

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25
Q

Oropharynx

A

part of the pharynx lying posterior to the oral cavity & continuous with it through an archway (isthmus of fauces)

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26
Q

Isthmus of fauces

A

archway continuous with the oropharynx

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27
Q

Palatine tonsils

A

paired tonsils embedded in the lateral walls of the oropharyngeal mucosa just posterior to the oral cavity

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28
Q

Lingual tonsil

A

tonsil covering the posterior surface of the tongue

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29
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

serves as a passageway for food and air; lined with a stratified squamous epithelium; directly posterior to the upright epiglottis and extends to the larynx, where the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge

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30
Q

Larynx

A

voice box; extends for 5cm from the level of the 3rd to the 6th cervical vertebra

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31
Q

Thyroid cartilage

A

large, shield-shaped cartilage formed by the fusion of 2 cartilage plates

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32
Q

Laryngeal prominence

A

midline; marks the fusion point of 2 cartilage plates; obvious externally as the Adam’s Apple

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33
Q

Cricoid cartilage

A

ring-shaped cartilage perched atop and anchored to the trachea inferiorly

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34
Q

Arytenoid, cuneiform, & corniculate cartilages

A

3 pairs of small cartilages that form part of the lateral and posterior walls of the larynx

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35
Q

Epiglottis

A

9th cartilage; flexible, spoon-shaped structure; composed of elastic cartilage and is almost entirely covered by a taste bud-containing mucosa

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36
Q

Vocal ligaments

A

ligaments that attach they arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilage; composed largely of elastic fibers; form the core of mucosal folds (vocal cords)

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37
Q

Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

A

mucosal folds, appear pearly white because they lack blood vessels; vibrate, producing sounds as air rushes up from the lungs

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38
Q

Glottis

A

the vocal folds and the medial openings between them through which air passes

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39
Q

Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)

A

superior to the vocal folds is a similar pair of mucosal folds; play no direct part in sound production but help to close the glottis when we swallow

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40
Q

Laryngitis

A

inflammation of the vocal folds

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41
Q

Valsalva’s Maneuver

A

the vocal folds acting as a sphincter that prevents air passage; during abdominal straining associated with defecation, the glottis closes to prevent exhalation and the abdominal muscles contract, causing the intra-abdominal pressure to rise; these events help empty the rectum and can also splint/stabilize the body trunk when lifting a heavy load

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42
Q

Trachea

A

windpipe; descends from the larynx through the neck and into the mediastinum; ends by dividing into the 2 main bronchi at midthorax

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43
Q

Submucosa

A

connective tissue layer deep to the mucosa containing seromucous glands that help produce the mucus sheets within the trachea

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44
Q

Adventitia

A

outermost layer of connective tissue of the trachea

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45
Q

Trachealis

A

the open posterior parts of the cartilage rings of the trachea, which abut the esophagus; connected by smooth muscle fibers of this & by soft connective tissue

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46
Q

Carina

A

spar of cartilage as the last tracheal cartilage is expanded; projects posteriorly from the inner face of the trachea; marks the point where the trachea branches into 2 main bronchi

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47
Q

Heimlich maneuver

A

procedure in which air in the victim’s lungs is used to expel an obstructing piece of food

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48
Q

Bronchial tree

A

the air passageways in the lungs branch again and again (about 23 times overall) in a pattern called this

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49
Q

Right and left (primary) bronchi

A

the trachea divides to form these passageways; approximately at the level of T7 in an erect/standing person

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50
Q

Lobar (secondary) bronchi

A

once inside the lungs, each main bronchus subdivides into these passageways, 3 on the right and 2 on the left, each supplying one lung lobe

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51
Q

Segmental (tertiary) bronchi

A

the lobar bronchi branch into 3rd order segments, which divide repeatedly into smaller and smaller bronchi

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52
Q

Bronchioles

A

passages smaller than 1mm in diameter

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53
Q

Terminal bronchioles

A

smallest of the passages in the lungs; less than 0.5mm in diameter

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54
Q

Alveoli

A

thin-walled air sacs

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55
Q

Respiratory bronchioles

A

the respiratory zone begins as the terminal bronchioles feed into these passages within the lungs

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56
Q

Alveolar ducts

A

the respiratory bronchioles lead into these winding ducts, whose walls consist of diffusely arranged rings of smooth muscle cells, connective tissue fibers, and outpocketing alveoli

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57
Q

Alveolar sacs/saccules

A

the alveolar ducts lead into these terminal clusters of alveoli

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58
Q

Type I alveolar cells

A

the walls of the alveoli are composed primarily of as single layer of these squamous epithelial cells, surrounded by a flimsy basement membrane

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59
Q

Respiratory membrane

A

the capillary and alveolar walls and their fused basement membranes form this 0.5 micrometer thick blood air barrier that has blood flowing past on 1 side and gas on the other

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60
Q

Type II alveolar cells

A

cells that secrete a fluid containing a detergent-like substance called surfactant that coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

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61
Q

Alveolar pores

A

openings connecting adjacent alveoli that allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized and provide alternate air routes to any alveoli whose bronchi have collapsed due to disease

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62
Q

Alveolar macrophages

A

phagocytes that crawl freely along the internal alveolar surfaces

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63
Q

Lungs

A

pair of structures that occupy all of the thoracic cavity except the mediastinum, which houses the heart, great blood vessels, bronchi, esophagus, and other organs

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64
Q

Root

A

each cone-shaped lung is surrounded by pleurae and connected to the mediastinum by vascular & bronchial attachments, collectively called this

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65
Q

Costal surface

A

the anterior, lateral, and posterior lung surfaces lie in close contact with the ribs and form this continuously curving surface

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66
Q

Apex

A

narrow superior tip of the lung, just deep to the clavicle

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67
Q

Base

A

concave, inferior surface of the lung that rests on the diaphragm

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68
Q

Hilum

A

on the mediastinal surface of each lung is this indentation through which pulmonary and systemic blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and leave the lungs

69
Q

Cardiac notch

A

concavity in the medial aspect of the left lung to make room for the heart

70
Q

Lobes

A

subdivisions of each lung; 3 on the right; 2 on the left

71
Q

Bronchopulmonary segments

A

each lobe contains a number of these pyramid-shaped segments separated from one another by connective tissue septa

72
Q

Lobules

A

the smallest subdivisions of the lung visible with the naked eye; appear at the lung surface as hexagons ranging from the size of a pencil eraser to the size of a penny

73
Q

Stroma

A

elastic connective tissue that makes up the majority of the lungs

74
Q

Pulmonary arteries

A

systemic venous blood that is to be oxygenated in the lungs is delivered by these vessels which lie anterior to the main bronchi

75
Q

Pulmonary capillary networks

A

in the lungs, the pulmonary arteries branch profusely along with the bronchi and finally feed into these networks surrounding the alveoli

76
Q

Pulmonary veins

A

vessels conveying the freshly oxygenated blood from the respiratory zone of the lungs to the heart

77
Q

Bronchial arteries

A

provide oxygenated systemic blood to lung tissue; arise from the aorta, enter the lungs as the hilum, and then run along the branching bronchi

78
Q

Pulmonary plexus

A

the lungs are innervated by parasympathetic and sympathetic motor fibers, and visceral sensory fibers that enter each lung through this plexus on the lung root and run along the bronchial tubes and blood vessels in the lungs

79
Q

Pleurae

A

form a thin, double-layered serosa

80
Q

Parietal pleura

A

layer covering the thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm

81
Q

Visceral pleura

A

layer covering the external lung surface, dipping into and lining its fissures

82
Q

Pleural fluid

A

fluid filling the slitlike pleural cavity between the pleurae

83
Q

Pleurisy

A

inflammation of the pleurae, often from pneumonia

84
Q

Breathing

A

pulmonary ventilation; consists of 2 phases - inspiration & expiration

85
Q

Inspiration

A

period when air flows into the lungs

86
Q

Expiration

A

period when gases exit the lungs

87
Q

Atmospheric pressure (Patm)

A

pressure exerted by the air (gases) surrounding the body; 760mm Hg at sea level

88
Q

Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)

A

pressure in the alveoli

89
Q

Intrapleural pressure (Pip)

A

pressure in the pleural cavity

90
Q

Transpulmonary pressure

A

difference between the intrapulmonary & intrapleural pressures that keeps the air spaces of the lungs open (or keeps the lungs from collapsing)

91
Q

Atelectasis

A

lung collapse; occurs when a bronchiole becomes plugged (as may follow pneumonia)

92
Q

Pneumothorax

A

presence of air in the pleural cavity; reversed by drawing air out of the intrapleural space with chest tubes

93
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

law giving the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas: at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume; p1vi = p2v2

94
Q

Inspiratory muscles

A

diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

95
Q

Surface tension

A

state of tension at the surface of a liquid

96
Q

Surfactant

A

detergent-like complex of lipids and proteins produced by the type II alveolar cells; decreases the cohesiveness of water molecules

97
Q

Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)

A

condition in which too little surfactant is present, surface tension can collapse the alveoli

98
Q

Lung compliance

A

distensibility of lungs (unbelievably stretchy)

99
Q

Respiratory volumes

A

tidal, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, and residual

100
Q

Tidal volume (TV)

A

respiratory volume during normal quiet breathing, about 500 mL of air moves into and then out of the lungs with each breath

101
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume

102
Q

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

amount of air (normally 1000-1200mL) that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration

103
Q

Residual volume (RV)

A

even after the most strenuous expiration, about 1200mL of air remains in the lungs; helps to keep the alveoli patent (open) and prevent lung collapse

104
Q

Respiratory capacities

A

inspiratory, functional residual, vital, and total lung capacities

105
Q

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

total amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration (sum of TV & IRV)

106
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration (RV + ERV)

107
Q

Vital capacity (VC)

A

total amount of exchangeable air; sum of TV, IRV, & ERV; ~4800 mL in healthy young males

108
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

sum of all lung volumes; normally ~ 6000 mL

109
Q

Anatomical dead space

A

volume of conducting zone conduits that never contribute to gas exchange; typically amounts to 150mL; in a healthy young adult = 1mL per pound of ideal body weight

110
Q

Alveolar dead space

A

if some alveoli cease to act in gas exchange (due to alveolar collapse or obstruction by mucus), this volume is added to the anatomical dead space

111
Q

Total dead space

A

sum of the nonuseful volumes (anatomical and alveolar dead space)

112
Q

Spirometer

A

original clinical measuring tool for lung volumes and capacities

113
Q

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

A

amount of gas expelled when a subject takes a deep breath and then forcefully exhales maximally and as rapidly as possible

114
Q

Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

A

determines the amount of air expelled during specific time intervals of the FVC test

115
Q

Minute ventilation

A

total amount of gas that flows into or out of the respiratory tract in 1 minute

116
Q

Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)

A

better index of effective ventilation (compared to minute ventilation); takes into account the volume of air wasted in the dead space and measures the flow of fresh gases in and out of the alveoli during a particular time interval; = frequency (breaths/min) x (TV - dead space)

117
Q

Nonrespiratory air movements

A

processes other than breathing; most result from reflex activity, but some are produced voluntarily

118
Q

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

A

law stating that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted independently by each gas in the mixture

119
Q

Partial pressure

A

pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture

120
Q

Henry’s Law

A

law stating that when a gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

121
Q

Oxygen toxicity

A

condition that develops rapidly when PO2 is greater than 2.5-3 atm

122
Q

Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

A

the hemoglobin-oxygen combination

123
Q

Reduced hemoglobin

A

hemoglobin that has released oxygen; AKA deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)

124
Q

Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

A

graph showing how local PO2 controls oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin

125
Q

Bohr Effect

A

both declining blood pH (acidosis) and increasing PCO2 weaken the Hb-O2 bond, a phenomenon called this; enhances oxygen unloading where it is most needed

126
Q

Hypoxia

A

inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues

127
Q

Anemic hypoxia

A

reflects poor O2 delivery resulting from too few RBCs or from RBCs that contain abnormal or too little Hb

128
Q

Ischemic (stagnant) hypoxia

A

results from impaired or blocked blood circulation

129
Q

Histotoxic hypoxia

A

occurs when body cells are unable to use O2, even though adequate amounts are delivered; metabolic poisons, such as cyanide, can cause this

130
Q

Hypoxemic hypoxia

A

indicated by reduced arterial PO2; possible causes include disordered or abnormal ventilation-perfusion coupling, pulmonary diseases that impair ventilation, and breathing AC containing scant amounts of O2

131
Q

Carbon monoxide poisoning

A

unique type of hypoxemic hypoxia; leading cause of death from fire

132
Q

Carbaminohemoglobin

A

dissolved CO2 is bound and carried in the RBCs

133
Q

Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

A

most carbon dioxide molecules entering the plasma quickly enter RBCs, where the reactions that prepare carbon dioxide transport as these ions in plasma mostly occur

134
Q

Carbonic anhydrase

A

substance in RBCs; enzyme that reversibly catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid

135
Q

Chloride shift

A

to counterbalance the rapid outrush of these anions from the RBCs, chloride ions move from the plasma into the RBCs; this ion exchange process occurs via facilitated diffusion through a RBC membrane protein

136
Q

Haldane Effect

A

the lower PO2 and the lower the Hb saturation with oxygen, the more CO2 the blood can carry; reflects the greater ability of reduced hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin and to buffer H+ by combining with it

137
Q

Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

A

very important in resisting shifts in blood pH

138
Q

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

A

network of neurons that extends in the ventral brain stem from the spinal cord to the pons-medulla junction

139
Q

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

A

located dorsally near the root of cranial nerve IX

140
Q

Phrenic and intercostal nerves

A

2 nerves exciting the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

141
Q

Eupnea

A

normal respiratory rate and rhythm

142
Q

Pontine respiratory group

A

transmit impulses to the VRG of the medulla

143
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

sensors responding to chemical fluctuations

144
Q

Central chemoreceptors

A

receptors located throughout the brain stem, including the ventrolateral medulla

145
Q

Peripheral chemoreceptors

A

receptors found in the aortic arch and carotid arteries

146
Q

Hypercapnia

A

condition in which CO2 accumulates in the brain

147
Q

Hyperventilation

A

increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds to body’s need to remove CO2

148
Q

Hypocapnia

A

low CO2 levels in the blood

149
Q

Apnea

A

breathing cessation

150
Q

Aortic bodies

A

where peripheral chemoreceptors can be found in the aortic arch

151
Q

Carotid bodies

A

where peripheral chemoreceptors can be found (in addition to the aortic arch)

152
Q

Hering-Breuer Reflex

A

inflation reflex

153
Q

Hyperpnea

A

increased ventilation in response to metabolic needs

154
Q

Acclimatization

A

when you move on a long-term basis from sea level to the mountains, your body makes respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments via this adaptive response

155
Q

Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)

A

diseases exemplified best by emphysema and chronic bronchitis

156
Q

Dyspnea

A

difficult or labored breathing often referred to as “air hunger”

157
Q

Hypoventilation

A

most COPD victims develop respiratory failure manifested as this insufficient ventilation in relations to metabolic needs, causing them to retain CO2, respiratory acidosis, and hypoxemia

158
Q

Emphysema

A

distinguished by permanent enlargement of the alveoli, accompanied by destruction of the alveolar walls

159
Q

Chronic bronchitis

A

condition in which inhaled irritants lead to chronic production of excessive mucus

160
Q

Asthma

A

condition characterized by episodes of coughing, dyspnea, wheezing, and chest tightness

161
Q

Tuberculosis (TB)

A

infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis; spread by coughing and primarily enters the body in inhaled air

162
Q

Adenocarcinoma

A

40% of lung cancer cases, which originates in peripheral lung areas as solitary nodules that develop from bronchial glands and alveolar cells

163
Q

Squamous cell carcinoma

A

25-30% of lung cancer cases; which arises in the epithelium of the bronchi or their larger subdivisions and tends to form masses that may cavitate (hollow out) and bleed

164
Q

Small cell carcinoma

A

20% of lung cancer cases; round lymphocyte-sized cells that originate in the main bronchi and grow aggressively in small grapelike clusters within the mediastinum

165
Q

Olfactory placodes

A

2 thickened plates of ectoderm present on the anterior aspect of the head

166
Q

Olfactory pits

A

olfactory placodes invaginate to form these structures that form the nasal cavities

167
Q

Laryngotracheal bud

A

the epithelium of the lower respiratory organs develops as an outpocketing of the foregut endoderm, which becomes the pharyngeal mucosa; this protrusion is present by the 5th week of development

168
Q

Cystic fibrosis (CF)

A

most common lethal genetic disease in North America; strikes 1 in 2400 births

Pre-Pharm (182 decks)

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