Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Physiology > BIOL 0800 Reading- Chapter 5 > Flashcards

BIOL 0800 Reading- Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the first step in the action of any intercellular chemical messenger?

A

The binding of the messenger to specific target cell proteins known as receptors or receptor proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is a receptor or receptor protein?

A

A specific target cell protein to which the messenger binds during intercellular chemical messaging

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is a chemical messenger?

A

A ligand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is signal transduction?

A

The sequence of events caused by the binding of a messenger to a receptor protein that leads to the cell’s response to that messenger

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the receptors that intercellular chemical messengers bind to?

A

Proteins or glycoproteins in the plasma membrane or cytosol or nucleus (usually the plasma membrane)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Why are the majority of receptors located in the plasma membrane?

A

Because the messengers are usually water soluble and can’t diffuse across the lipid membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is a receptor “superfamily?”

A

When receptor proteins for a group of messengers are structurally related, like for hormone receptors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

If different types of cells have the same receptors for a particular messenger, does that messenger affect each of the cells the same way?

A

Nope: norepinephrine contracts certain blood vessel smoother muscle cells, but decreases insulin secretion of certain pancreatic endocrine cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Why do some cells contain more than one difference receptor type for a single messenger?

A

Because the different types of receptors can have different effects on the cell even with the same messenger binding to them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is affinity for a messenger?

A

The degree to which a particular messenger binds to its receptor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

How does affinity affect binding?

A

High affinity means that the messenger will bind even at low concentrations, and low affinity requires high concentrations for binding

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is messenger saturation?

A

The degree to which receptors are occupied by messengers; if all are occupied, the receptors are fully saturated.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is messenger competition?

A

The ability of different molecules to compete with a ligand for binding to its receptor; competitors generally are similar in structure to the natural ligand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Competition between what kind of messengers occurs most frequently, and what is this the basis for?

A

Closely related messengers, and underlies the action of many drugs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are antagonists?

A

Drugs that block the endogenous messenger from binding but don’t trigger the cell’s response; example is beta blockers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What do beta blockers do?

A

Use epinephrine and norepinephrine to bind for receptors involved in high blood pressure and other diseases (beta-adrenergic) to prevent an increase in blood pressure that would have resulted from the epinephrine/norepinephrine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

List two common antagonists.

A

Beta blockers and antihistamines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are agonists?

A

Drugs that bind to a particular receptor type that do trigger the cell’s response exactly as if the endogenous messenger had been bound

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

List one common example of use of agonists.

A

Phenylephrine or oxymetazoline decongestants that mimic the action of epinephrine to induce vasoconstriction in the nasal passages.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is down regulation?

A

A decrease in the total number of target-cell receptors for a given messenger; mat occur in response to chronic high extracellular concentration of the messenger

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is a colloquial word for down regulation?

A

Desensitization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is up regulation?

A

An increase in the total number of target cell receptors for a given messenger; mat occur in response to a chronic low extracellular concentration of the messenger

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is internalization and what does it affect?

A

When the entire receptor complex is taken in by endocytosis after the messenger binds, which increases degradation of the receptor and leads to down regulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is receptor activation?

A

The initial step leading to a cell’s responses to the messenger, where the biding of the messenger to the receptor causes a change in the receptor’s conformation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What are the five cellular responses that can constitute the changes in conformation of the receptor during receptor activation?

A

Permeability, transport properties, or electrical state of the plasma membrane; metabolism; secretory activity; rate of proliferation and differentiation; contractile or other activities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What is the “common denominator” to the variety of responses to receptor activation?

A

They’re all directly due to alterations of particular cell proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What are signal transduction pathways?

A

The diverse sequences of events between receptor activation and cellular responses

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What kinds of receptors are inside the cytosol rather than in the plasma membrane?

A

Receptors for lipid soluble messengers, because those can pass through the membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

How do lipid soluble messengers generally act on cells?

A

Binding to intracellular receptor proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What are some examples of lipid soluble messengers?

A

Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, steroid derivative 1,23-dihydroxy vitamin D

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is the steroid hormone receptor superfamily?

A

The receptors for the steroid/thyroid/1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D messengers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Where are most of the inactive receptor in the steroid hormone superfamily residing in the cell?

A

Already in the cell nucleus where they bind to and are activated by their respective ligands

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What does receptor activation of the steroid hormone superfamily in the cell nucleus activate?

A

Altered rates of gene transcription

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What does the activated receptor complex for the steroid hormone superfamily function as in the nucleus?

A

A transcription factor, which is any regulatory protein that directly influences gene transcription

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Where does the hormone-receptor complex bind in the GNA for the steroid hormone superfamily?

A

Near a gene in DNA called a response element, which increases the rate of the gene transcription in mRNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What is a response element?

A

A specific sequence near a gene in DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is the general phrasing for the effect of the transcription factor by the binding of steroid hormone superfamily receptors to their ligands in the cell nucleus?

A

Faster transcription which results in proliferation of the particular protein encoded in that gene segment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Does activation of the transcription factor by activation of the steroid hormone superfamily complexes always results in increased transcription rates?

A

Nope, can also result in decreased, like hoew cortisol decreases transcription to mediate inflammatory responses that occur after injury or infection

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Can more than one gene be subject to control by a single receptor type?

A

Yes: glucocorticoid hormone cortisol acts via one type of receptor to activate various genes for cellular metabolism and energy balance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What are some examples of water soluble messengers?

A

Most hormones, neurotransmitters, and paracrine-autocrine compounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What are the four types of plasma membrane receptors?

A

1) Receptors that are ligated gated ion channels; 2) receptors that themselves function as enzymes such as receptor tyrosine kinases; 3) receptors that are bound to and activate cytoplasmic janus kinases; 4) g-protein-coupled receptors that activate G proteins which in turn act on effector proteins, either ion channels or enzymes, in the plasma membrane

42
Q

What are first messengers vs second messengers?

A

First messengers are the intercellular chemical messengers that reach the cell and bind to their receptors; second messengers are substances that enter or are generation as a result of first messenger receptor activation

43
Q

What is a protein kinase?

A

An enzyme that phosphorylates other proteins by transferring a phosphate group to them from ATP

44
Q

How do ligand-gated channels function?

A

Activation of the receptor by the first messenger opens the channel in the plasma membrane to increase net diffusion of the ions specific to that channel across the membrane

45
Q

What kinds of cells feature a lot of ligand-gated ion channels?

A

Neurons

46
Q

Most of the receptors that possess intrinsic enzyme activity are what?

A

Protein kinases

47
Q

What kind of kinases are the majority of protein kinases that act enzymatically to facilitate water-soluble messenger pathways? Why?

A

Receptor tyrosine kinases, because they specifically phosphorylate the portions of proteins that contain the amino acid tyrosine

48
Q

How do receptors with intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity function in water-soluble messenger pathways?

A

Messenger-receptor binding changes the conformation of the receptor so that the enzymatic portion is activated (on the cytoplasmic side), which autophosphorylates the receptor (receptor phosphorylates its own tyrosine groups); then the new phosphotyrosines on the cytoplasmic side are docking sites for cytoplasmic proteins, which bind and activate other proteins and so on and so on

49
Q

What does autophosphorylation mean during the activation of the enzymatic portion of the receptor tyrosine kinase?

A

That the receptors own tyrosine groups get phosphorylated to create phosphotyrosines on the cytoplasmic side of the receptor

50
Q

What is the common denominator of the pathways activated by receptor tyrosine kinases activated by their water-soluble messengers?

A

They all involve activation of cytoplasmic proteins by phosphorylation

51
Q

Why are most receptors with intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity called growth factors?

A

Because they often influence cell proliferation and differentiation

52
Q

What is the one major exception to the generalization that plasma membrane receptors with inherent enzyme activity function as protein kinases?

A

When the receptor functions as a receptor and as a guanylyl cyclase to catalyze formation of cyclic GMP (cGMP) that acts as a second messengers to activate a protein kinase called cGMP-dependent protein kinase that phosphorylates specific proteins to mediate the cell’s response to the original messenger

53
Q

What is the main difference between receptors with intrinsic enzyme activity and receptors that interact with cytoplasmic janus kinases?

A

In the former, the enzymatic activity resides in the receptor itself, but I JAK, it resides in a family of separate cytoplasmic kinases called janus kinases associated with the receptor

54
Q

How does receptor activation with janus kinases work?

A

The first messenger binds to the receptor and causes a conformational change in the receptor that leads to activation of the janus kinase; the janus kinase associated with that receptor phosphorylates target proteins to act as transcription factors, which ends in the synthesis of new proteins

55
Q

What is one example of signals mediated primarily by janus-kinase related receptors?

A

Cytokines: proteins secreted by cells of the immune system

56
Q

What is the largest category of plasma membrane receptors?

A

G-protein-coupled receptors

57
Q

What is a G-protein-coupled receptor?

A

The receptor in the plasma membrane has a protein complex bound to it on the cytosolic side (from the heterotrimeric protein family, G proteins) that can bind GDP and GTP

58
Q

What are G-proteins?

A

Heterotrimeric (contain three different subunits); contain alpha, beta, and gamma subunits; alpha subunit can bind GDP and ATP; the beta and gamma subunits help anchor the alpha subunit in the membrane

59
Q

What happens in g-protein-coupled receptors when the first messenger binds to the receptor?

A

Activated receptor increases the affinity of the alpha subunit for GTP, so they bind and the alpha subunit dissociated from the beta and gamma subunits, allowing the alpha subunit to link up with another plasma membrane protein (ion channel or enzyme) to mediate the next steps in the sequence

60
Q

What are plasma membrane effector proteins?

A

Proteins in the plasma membrane (ion channels or enzymes) that are activated by the alpha subunit of the G protein (in the plasma membrane from the G-protein-coupled receptor) which has bound to GTP

61
Q

What is the essence of the G-protein-coupled receptor’s function?

A

It’s a switch to couple a receptor to plasma membrane effector protein (ion channel or enzyme)

62
Q

What happens are the alpha subunit of the G protein activation its effector protein?

A

A GTPase activity in the alpha subunit cleaves CTP into GDP plus Pi, rendering the alpha subunit inactive and recombining it with the beta and gamma subunits

63
Q

What are two of the most important effector protein enzymes regulated by G proteins?

A

Adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C

64
Q

How does the adenylyl cyclase pathway work?

A

Activation of the receptor activates the associated G protein (here Gs for stimulatory), which activates its own effector protein, adenylyl cyclase in the membrane, which catalyzes the conversion of cytosolic ATP to cyclic AMP (3’5’-adenosine monophosphate), which is a second messenger

65
Q

How does the action of cAMP terminate?

A

When it’s broken into AMP by cAMP phosphodiesterase

66
Q

How is the cellular concentration of cAMP changed?

A

By altering the rate of its messenger-mediated generation, or by altering the rate of its phosphodiesterase-mediated breakdown (caffeine and theophylline inhibit phosphodiesterase activity and breakdown)

67
Q

What does cAMP do in cells?

A

Bind to and activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A) which phosphorylates other proteins

68
Q

What is the essence of activation of adenylyl cyclase by a G protein?

A

Initiates and amplification cascade of events that convert proteins in seuqnece from inactive to active forms

69
Q

True or false: activation of one molecule of adenylyl cyclase may catalyze the generation of 100 cAMP molecules

A

True! And at the next step, there’s another 100-fold amplification

70
Q

What biological principle is illustrated by the amplification effect of activation of adenylyl cyclase?

A

How hormones and other messengers can e effective at extremely low extracellular concentrations

71
Q

What does it mean for a gene to be cAMP-response?

A

That, when the cAMO-activated protein kinase A diffuses into the cell nucleus, it can phosphorylate a protein that binds to a specific regulatory region of the gene

72
Q

How can cAMP’s activation of a single molecule (cAMP-dependent protein kinase) result in so much variety?

A

cAMP-dependent protein kinase can nphosphorylate a large number of different proteins, so it can exert multiple actions within a single cell and different actiosn in different cells

73
Q

Give an example of how cAMP-dependent protein kinase can have different effects in different cells.

A

Epinephrine activates the cAMP pathway in fat cells to break down triglycerides, but also in the liver to stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis using different phosphorylated enzymes from the ones in fat cells

74
Q

True or false: some receptors for first messengers, when activated, inhibit adenylyl cyclase.

A

True: results in less generation of cAMP because the receptors are associated with a different G protein, Gi (inhibitory), so decreases phosphoryltaion of key proteins in cells

75
Q

What happens in the phospholipase C pathway?

A

G protein called Gq is activated by a receptor bound to the first messenger, which activates a plasma membrane effector enzyme called phospholipase C, to catalyze the breakdown of a plasma membrane phospholipied called phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, PIP2, to diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

76
Q

What does the plasma membrane effector enzyme phospholipase C do?

A

Breaks down PIP2 into DAG and IP3, which function as second messengers In different ways

77
Q

How does DAG from PIP2 act as a second messenger?

A

Activates protein kinase C (family) that phosphorylates a large number of other proteins

78
Q

How does IP3 from PIP2 act as a second messenger?

A

Binds to receptors on the ER (ligand-gated Ca2+ channels), causing Ca ions to diffuse into the cytosol, increasing cytosolic Ca ion concentration, which THEN triggers the sequence of pathway events in response to the first messsenger

79
Q

What is one of the most important features of G-protein function?

A

Its ability to both directly and indirectly gate ion channels

80
Q

What does indirect G-protein gating of ion channels utilize?

A

A second messenger pathway for the opening/closing of the channel

81
Q

What kinds of protein kinases can participate in indirect G-protein gating of ion channels?

A

cAMP protein kinases, but also other protein kinases that are involved in signal transduction pathways

82
Q

What are the three ways receptor activation influences ion channels?

A

The ion channel is actually part of the receptor, a G protein directly gates the channel, of a G protein gates the channel indirectly via a second messenger that is a protein kinase

83
Q

What ion acts as a common second messenger in a variety of cellular responses to stimuli?

A

Calcium ions

84
Q

What kind of Ca ion concentration is maintained in the cytosol, and how?

A

Very very low, thanks to active transport system sin the plasma membrane and organelles

85
Q

What does the large electorchemical gradient favor, in regards to Ca ion activity in the cells?

A

Favors diffusion of Ca ions into the cytosol via channels in the membrane and ER

86
Q

How can Ca ions act as a second messenger?

A

1) in response to chemical stimuli via receptors, and 2) in response to electircal stimuli acting via voltage-gated calcium ion channels, or 3) binding to Ca-ion-sensitive channels in the ER to open them

87
Q

What is calcium-induced Ca ion release?

A

When the extracellular calcium ions enter the cells via voltage gated channels and bind to sensitive channels in ER to open them and allow a lot of Ca ion from the ER to enter the cytosol

88
Q

What are the mechanisms by which stimulation of a cell leads to an increase in cytosolic Ca ion concentration?

A

Opened ion channels in the plasma membrane; Ca release from ER by IP3 or Ca ions themselves, or active Ca transport out of cell inhibited by second messenger; or opening of voltage-gated channels

89
Q

What is the common denominator of calcium ion actions?

A

Its ability to bind to various cytosolic proteins to activated their function

90
Q

What is one of the most important proteins that Ca ions can bind to?

A

Calmodulin, in basically all cells, which activates or inhibits calmodulin-dependent protein kinases via phosphorylation

91
Q

What are eicosanoids?

A

Molecules produced from polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid in the plasma membrane phospholipids

92
Q

What is included in the eicosanoid family?

A

Cyclic endoperoxides, prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leurotrienes

93
Q

How are eicosanoids produced?

A

Phospholipase A2 is activated by messenger-receptor binding, and it splits arachidonic acid from the membrane phospholipids for metabolization by two pathways

94
Q

What are the two pathways for metabolization of arachidonic acid after it’s split from the membrane phospholipids by the enzyme phospholipase A2?

A

1) Cycooxygenase (COX), which forms other cyclic endoperoxides, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes. 2) the enzyme lipoxygenase to form leukotrienes

95
Q

What happens to eicosanoids after they are produced?

A

Might be used as intracellular messengers, but more commonly released and act locally (paracrine and autocrine substances)

96
Q

What do eicosanoids have a particular effect on?

A

Blood vessels and inflammation

97
Q

How is arachidonic acid different from other second messengers?

A

Although it transduces a signal from a messenger and receptor to a cellular response, it’s special because it also serves as a substrate to be converted into other products

98
Q

What are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs?

A

NSAIDs, which block cyclooxygenase and thus block the synthesis of endoperoxides, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes to recuce pain, fever, and inflammation

99
Q

What is the key event in termination of signal transduction pathways?

A

Cessation of receptor activation, particularly by a decrease in first messenger concentration

100
Q

What are three ways signal transduction pathways can be terminated?

A

1) receptor becomes chemically altered, usually by phosphorylation to lower its affinity for a first messengers; 2) phosphorylation of the receptor to prevent further G-protein binding to the receptor; or 3) plasma membrane receptors are removed if the first messenger and receptor and taken in by endocytosis

Physiology (13 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions