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From Flashcardlet > bone/muscle/joints > Flashcards

bone/muscle/joints Flashcards

0
Q

Example of sesamoid bone

A

Patella

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1
Q

What makes bone hard?

A

Salts in the AGS crystallise to form a matrix - making bone super hard

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2
Q

What is the diaphysis?

A

Shaft, or middle of the bone

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3
Q

What Is the junction called between the diaphysis and the epiphysis?

A

Metaphysis

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4
Q

What covers the epiphysis?

A

Articular cartilage

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5
Q

What is inside the medullary cavity?

A

Yellow Marrow/ fat

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6
Q

What is the middle of the long bone shaft called?

A

Medullary cavity

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7
Q

What is the outer most layer covering the bone?

A

Periosteum, dense irregular connective tissue

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8
Q

cells of bone

A

osteogenic, osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast

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9
Q

what do osteogenic cells become?

A

osteoblasts

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10
Q

where are osteogenic cells found?

A

on the edge of bone ie. periosteum, endosteum

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11
Q

function of osteoblasts

A

bone forming cells

making of collagen/AGS/proteins

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12
Q

what do osteoblasts become and how?

A

osteoctyes, when it becomes trapped in matrix they have deposited

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13
Q

what are osteocytes

A

main bone cell, maintain bone via spidery fingers

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14
Q

where are osteocytes located?

A

in Lacuna

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15
Q

what are osteoclasts?

A

cell which eats/digests bone, not derived from osteogenic cells,

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16
Q

structure of osteoclasts

A

large cell(10X bigger than other bone cells), multinucleated cell lots of cells come together to form this cell, has lots of lysosomes,

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17
Q

location of osteoclast

A

edge of bone in pits next to osteogenic and osteoblast cells,

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18
Q

only bone cell in the middle of the bone

A

osteocytes

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19
Q

what is the contents of the bone matrix?

A

inorganic(calcium/phosphate = forms crystal matrix) + organic

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20
Q

what triggers mineralisation/crystallisation in bone and what is it made of?

A

osteoblast, salts(calcium and phosphate)

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21
Q

so what actually happens in mineralisation/calcification of bone?

A

osteoblasts trigger the deposit of mineral crystals around collagen fibres causing the matrix to harden

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22
Q

where is compact bone found?

A

edge of diaphysis

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23
Q

what structures does compact bone consist of?

A

osteons or Haversion systems and

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24
Q

what are osteons?

A

bone matris laid down in rings around blood vessels

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25
Q

what does the Haversian canal contain?

A

blood vessels

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26
Q

why are there blood vessels in bone?

A

bring in nutrients and carry away waste

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27
Q

how are osteons aligned?

A

alone lines of stress

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28
Q

types of lamellae

A

interstitial and circumferential

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29
Q

what are interstitial lamellae

A

old osteon that have been partially removed
bone was remade or remodelled due to changes in stress
all thats left is a few plates of bone, that used to be a ring but are now just plates

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30
Q

what are the black spaces within the bone matrix?

A

lacuna

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31
Q

what are lacuna?

A

empty spaces in bone where osteocytes sit

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32
Q

what connects lacuna?

A

canaliculi

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33
Q

what cells sit on the edge of bone?

A

osteogenic, osteoclast, osteoblasts

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34
Q

why are lacuna necessary?

A

as osteocytes have delicate arms and would be crushed by hard bone matrix

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35
Q

what is the space called that the “arms/legs” of osteocytes sit in?

A

canaliculi “little tunnel”

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36
Q

what is the importance of the lacuna/canaliculi structures in bone…besides protection from bone matrix

A

help move nutrients and oxygen through bone as nutrients cannot flow through rock hard bone matrix to get to cells(from blood vessels in Haversian canal

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37
Q

how is movement of nutrients through bone possible?

A

network of lacuna and canaliculi passing between osteocytes

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38
Q

what connects osteocytes?

A

gap junctions…they “hold hands (‘:”

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39
Q

where is spongey bone located?

A

in the epiphysis

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40
Q

what makes it spongey?

A

little spaces with bone

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41
Q

what do the spaces in spongey bone contain?

A

red bone marrow, developing red/white blood cells

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42
Q

why aren’t all our bone compact?

A

too heavy!

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43
Q

structure of spongey bone

A

Does not have Haversian canals…need because blood vessel can simply run through empty space
just have lamellae and lacuna containing osteocytes
don’t form osteons

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44
Q

function of yellow bone marrow?

A

fat (energy storage)

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45
Q

advantage of having energy storage such as yellow marrow within the bone?

A

as developing red/white blood cells in the red marrow within the epiphysis requires a lot of energy

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46
Q

difference between cartilage and bone

A

rubbery(not calcified or mineralised), proteins make the rubbery function
bone requires movement but not damage ends,

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47
Q

why is the end of bones covered in articular cartilage

A

to avoid damage to bone, resist compression, absorb shock, smooth reduces friction thus reducing pain

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48
Q

what are the cells of cartilage called?

A

“CHONDRO” - cells of cartilage

chondroblast, chondrocyte,

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49
Q

location and function of chondroblasts

A

near edge of bone, secret cartilage matrix

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50
Q

function and location of chondrocytes

A

maintain cartilage, sit within lacuna as pressure on joints could crush the poor chondrocyte

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51
Q

why is cartilage avascular?

A

as joints constantly experience pressure and stresses making it hard not to burst delicate blood vessels

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52
Q

does cartilage have blood vessels?

A

no

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53
Q

where does protective articular cartilage of a joint get its nutrients from?

A

fluid in joints(in living person), synovial fluid also from the blood vessels in the bone! nutrients diffuse across into cartilage

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54
Q

types of cartilage

A

articular/hyline

fibro

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55
Q

what is articular/hyaline cartilage consist of?

A

collagen, elastin in equal amounts

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56
Q

what does fibrocartilage mainly consist of?

A

collagen (more fibres)

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57
Q

what is the advantage of equal amounts of collagen and elastin fibres in articular cartilage?

A

strength and rubbery function

to maintain shape and function

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58
Q

where is fibrocartilage found?

A

intervertebral vertebra, not much movement is needed and more support is needed (entire body weight)

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59
Q

where is elastic cartilage found?

A

nose/ears

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60
Q

describe the appearance of fibrocartilage:

A

rows of chondrocytes in lacunae plus extensive bundles of collagen

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61
Q

location and function of the epiglottis

A

very back of throat, stops food going down wind pipe

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62
Q

how many bones do we have as a baby vs an adult?

A

270 vs 206

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63
Q

what is ossification?

A

formation of bone

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64
Q

when does ossification begin?

A

in early embryonic life

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65
Q

what are the two ossification methods?

A

intermembranous and endochondral ossification

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66
Q

what is intermembranous ossification?

A

bone formation from connective tissue

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67
Q

what is endochondral ossification?

A

bone formation from hyaline/articular cartilage

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68
Q

what kind of bone forms from inter membranous ossification?

A

flat and irregular bone

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69
Q

examples of flat bone

A

skull, sternum, ribs

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70
Q

example of long bones

A

tibia, fibula, femur, humerus

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71
Q

how does long bone form?

A

endochondral ossification?

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72
Q

step 1 of intermembranous ossification:

A

1) lump of connective tissue in an embryo, somewhere the skull/any other flat/irregular bone will eventually form

73
Q

what is mesenchym? and what are its cells called

A

connective tissue in an embryo, mesenchymal cells

74
Q

step 2 of intermembranous ossification

A

osteoblasts forming bone, becomes trapped, thus becomes osteocytes, now a lump of bone

75
Q

step 3 of intermembranous ossification

A

blood vessel pierces lump of bone, bring in osteoclasts which make and destroy bone eventually making medulla spaces

formation of trabeculae

76
Q

step 4 of intermembranous ossification

A

develops into skull through bone remodelling

77
Q

general steps in endochondral ossification:

A

connective tissue –> cartilage –> bone!

78
Q

step 1 of endochondral ossification:

A

embryonic fibroblasts(mesenchymal cells) becomes chondroblasts which makes cartilage, a lump of cartilage then appears in that space in the shape of the bone it will make

79
Q

what type of bone does endochondral ossification make?

A

long bone

80
Q

step 2 of endochondral ossification:

A

growth of cartilage model in length(chondrocyte division within matrix) and width(formation of new cartilage at edge of bone);

81
Q

step 3 of endochondral ossification:

A

the chondrocytes in the mid region of the cartilage model(bone shaped cartilage) get really fat due to ingesting lots of glycogen(sugars) and burst, releasing their contents into the cartilage matrix/GS/fluid changing the pH and triggers calcification(calcium forms salts), salts stick on collagen which make bone hence death of chondrocytes.

82
Q

step 4 of endochondral ossification:

A

all cells die due to calcification of cartilage and stop of nutrient flow, shaft hollows out, blood vessels penetrate shaft bringing osteoclasts, osteoclasts eat away all the dead cartilage, resulting in a large empty space…eventually filling with yellow marrow

83
Q

summarise what happens after one chondrocyte ingests too much glycogen

A

chondrocytes get big, they die, causing calcification, making matrix in there really hard, kills of other living cells as they cant get nutrients anymore, dead tissue in the middle is removed by the osteoclasts brought in by blood vessles end up with a big space

84
Q

endochondral ossification…AFTER birth

A

development of secondary ossification centre, blood vessel entre cartilage in epiphysis at birth, bringing osteoclasts eat away cartilage and osteoblasts enter forming spongey bone

85
Q

during the after birth stage of endochondral ossification is all cartilage eaten away by osteoclasts?

A

no, some articular cartilage remains at the top(nice and smooth) and small amount remains between epiphysis and metaphysis called epiphyseal plate

86
Q

what is the function of the epiphyseal plate?

A

responsible for bone growth in length

87
Q

types of bone growth:

A

Length and width

Interstitial and appositional

88
Q

where does interstitial bone growth occur?

A

epiphyseal plate

89
Q

how does epiphyseal plate increase length of bone

A

cartilage divides, new cartilage creates new bone, slowly long bone will increase in length

90
Q

what age does interstitial bone growth occur?

A

until the age of 18-25 years “growths spurts”

91
Q

are epiphyseal plates renewable?

A

no, they only last for a certain amount of time, once they are gone epiphysis is completely spongey bone on the inside and length of bone is final

92
Q

looking at an x-ray of a long bone, how would you tell whether it came from an adult or a child?

A

presence of epiphyseal plate(comes up as a black line)

93
Q

Super simple summarisation of how epiphyseal plate increases length of bone

A

cartilage cells get really fat, they burst, they die, replaced with bone

94
Q

where does cartilage become bone after birth?

A

the epiphyseal plate

95
Q

process of appositional bone growth

A

osteogenic cells sitting on the edge of bone make osteoblasts which lay bone down around blood vessels

96
Q

how does nutrition affect bone growth?

A

we don’t make minerals, so need to be getting adequate amounts from our diet (eg. calcium and phosphate) and vitamins (vit C for collagen)
other we just can’t make bone!

97
Q

what is responsible for the “growth spurt”?

A

sex hormones produced at puberty

98
Q

how do increase of sex hormone production stimulate growth?

A

hormones bind to chondrocytes in epiphyseal plate, basically tells/triggers them to make more bone thus rapidly increasing length of bone
and bind to osteoblasts increasing width

99
Q

why do adolescent girls grow taller and faster than boys?

A

as oestrogen initially has a stronger effect than testosterone on bone cells, HOWEVER the effect wears out over time
where as testosterone tends to effect bone cells for longer, thus males grow for a longer period of time

100
Q

what does hypertrophy mean?

A

over active

101
Q

Which hormone has the largest effect on growth?

A

human growth hormone

102
Q

where is the human growth hormone found?

A

pituitary gland(hangs of the back of the brain)

103
Q

if we just kept growing and growing what would we be endanger of?

A

heart failure, too difficult to support that much tissue/organs

104
Q

so is bone shaped fixed after growth spurt?

A

no, as an adult your bones are constantly being remade(replenished) and remodelled.

105
Q

how ofter is the distal femur replaced?

A

around every 4 months

106
Q

Why are fractures more likely to occur in inactive people?

A

as when you’re inactive less bone will be created by the osteoblasts however osteoclasts will not slow in eating your bone weakening the bone, decrease in bone density can lead to osteoporosis

107
Q

types of fractures:

A 
stress(abnormal physical trauma eg. falling down stairs)
AND
pathological fracture(bone weakened by disease eg. cancer, osteoporosis
108
Q

how are joints classified?

A

function and structer

109
Q

what is a joint?

A

where two bones meet..but can permit movement

110
Q

types of structural joints (SC)

A

fibrous
cartilaginous
synovial
(based on whats between the bones)

111
Q

types of functional classification of joints (FC)

A

immovable
slightly movable
freely moveable

112
Q

description of a fibrous joint:

A

no cavity, bones connected via collagen..limiting movability

113
Q

example of fibrous joints:

A

skull joints

immovable

114
Q

what type of joint is the tibia and fibula?

A

fibrous immovable

115
Q

description of cartilaginous joint

A

no cavity, little or no movement

cartilage is found between bone

116
Q

example of cartilaginous joint:

A

intervertebral discs, stacked on top of one another with cartilage between them

117
Q

description of synovial joints:

A

cavity containing fluid(synovial) and cartilage

freely movable

118
Q

what contains the synovial fluid?

A

synovial membrane…reinforced by dense connective tissue(capsule)

119
Q

what is the joint capsule made of and what is its function?

A

dense connective tissue, ensure synovial membrane does not break

120
Q

what connects bone to muscle

A

tendons

121
Q

what connects bone to bone?

A

ligament(dense regular connective tissue)

122
Q

what does the joint capsule become after time?

A

joint ligament

123
Q

where does synovial fluid come from?

A

made in the synovial membrane

124
Q

what is the function of synovial fluid?

A

allows freely moveable joints

provides nutrients to cartilage

125
Q

name of the special ligament in knees

A

articular ligaments

126
Q

whats different about articular ligaments?

A

they are inside the joint

kind of cross over to avoid knee joints clashing together

127
Q

what is an articular disk and where is it found?

A

plate of fibro(tough) cartilage that sits inside the knee, just kinda of in the middle

128
Q

function of articular disk

A

matches both edges allowing joint to fit together nicely, thus making it more stable

129
Q

what exists in a joint where there is friction between bone and skin?

A

sack of fluid called “bursa”

130
Q

how many types of synovial joints?

A

6

131
Q

where are ball and socket joints found?

A

shoulder and hip

132
Q

what is the main function of the ball and socket joint?

A

allows the most movement of any joint in the body

133
Q

difference between shoulder and hip ball and socket joints

A

hip socket is deeper than shoulder socket

hip has to support more weight for longer periods of time

134
Q

which ball and socket joint is more stable: hip or shoulder?

A

hip

135
Q

what cells secrete the organic components of the bone matrix?

A

osteoblasts

136
Q

muscle tissue has the ability to

A

extensibility, elasticity, contractibility, excitability, responds to stimuli

137
Q

what is the movement of your arm towards your ear called?

A

abduction

138
Q

the movement of your arm towards your hip called?

A

adduction

139
Q

how does the bone grow during appositional bone growth?

A

width

140
Q

endochondral ossification begins with the formation of an

A

cartilage model, in the shape of the bone it will create(long bone)

141
Q

where is fat stored within bone?

A

medullary cavity

142
Q

where do secondary ossification centres occur?

A

in the epiphysis

143
Q

the delicate connective tissue that surrounds the skeleton muscle fibres and ties adjacent muscle fibres together is the:

A

endomysium

144
Q

the dense layer of connective tissue that surrounds the entire skeletal muscle is the:

A

epimysium

145
Q

the interconnecting tiny arches of bone tissue found in spongy bone are called:

A

trabeculae

146
Q

the lining of the medullary cavity is called the:

A

endosteum

147
Q

what does the medullary cavity of bone contain?

A

marrow

148
Q

what is the most abundant cell type in bone?

A

osteoctyes

149
Q

the narrow passageways that contain cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes are called:

A

canaliculi

150
Q

what is the sarcolemma?

A

the plasma membrane of muscle cells

151
Q

what allows action potenital to penetrate skeletal muscle cells?

A

transverse (T) tubules

152
Q

what is the movement of palm side facing up called?

A

supination

153
Q

what is the movement of palm side facing down called?

A

pronation

154
Q

how are trabeculae organised in spongy bone?

A

along lines of stress

155
Q

how is bone matrix dissolved

A

through action of osteoclasts

156
Q

what is used as a means of naming muscles?

A

location, action, shape, attachment

157
Q

functions of the skeletal system

A

protection of internal organs
body support
blood cell production
calcium homeostasis

158
Q

function of sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

storage and release site for calcium ions

159
Q

what allows action potential to travel quickly from one cardiac muscle cell to another?

A

gap junctions and intercalated discs

160
Q

what is the motor protein that facilitates contraction in muscle cells?

A

myosin

161
Q

function of osteogenic cell?

A

stem cell that develops into osteoblasts

162
Q

function of osteoblast

A

bone making cell, secretes organic components of bone matrix eg. protein and collagen

163
Q

function of osteocyte?

A

maintain bone matrix and allow nutrients and oxygen to pass through bone

164
Q

function of osteoclast?

A

resorption of bone

165
Q

How does x-rays of bones work?

A

patients are exposed to short x-ray bursts, calcium within bones absorbs x-rays making bones appear white in x-ray images

166
Q

where can hyline/articular cartilage be found?

A

end of bones
in ribs and trachea
epiphyseal plate

167
Q

where can fibro-cartilage be found?

A 
intervertebral discs 
articular discs (menisci)...in knee
168
Q

example of where elastic fibres can be found?

A

external ear
epiglottis
nose

169
Q

what do are all connective tissues made of?

A

cells, fibres and extracellular matrix

170
Q

what is the prefix for muscle cells

A

SARCO

171
Q

can muscle cells divide?

A

no, however some satellite(stem) cells are present on the edge of muscles which can give rise to a few replacement cells

172
Q

describe the contraction of muscles

A

an action potential(from nerve fibres) runs along muscle cells, penetrating through transverse (T) tubules triggering the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release masses of calcium into the cell which bind with action potential and causing actin to slide over myosin thus contracting the muscle

173
Q

what are the striations that you see in skeletal muscle?

A

myosin

174
Q

what is myofibral?

A

within muscle cell, two main components
myosin a thick protein
actin a thin filament

175
Q

what is the benefit of the branching structure of cardiac muscle?

A

allow withstand of pulling forces in many directions
mainly the ability to rapidly spread signals to contract from cell to cell
1 - 2 - 4 - 8 ..

176
Q

what is “special” about contraction of smooth muscle?

A

irregular arrangement of actin allows contraction of all directions, overall “shrinkage of cell”

177
Q

what are the 2 types of smooth muscle cell?

A

visceral (single unit)

multiunit smooth muscle cell

178
Q

what is the job of the prime mover in muscle contraction?

A

does most of the heavy lifting

179
Q

what is the job of the relaxant muscle or “antagonist”?

A

to remain relaxed and allow extension to prevent damage

180
Q

what is the job of the synergist muscle in contraction?

A

to stabilise joint, and ensure bone does not move incorrectly

181
Q

what is the job of the fixator muscle in muscle contraction?

A

prevents movement of the bone that the prime mover is attached to.

From Flashcardlet (34 decks)

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