British Political History 1846-1919 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
What was the political state of Britian going into 1846?
A
Empire
Industrial revolution was ongoing
Great Reform Act of 1832 had expanded the franchise, abolished rotten boroughs, and gave representation to cities
Slavery had been recently abolished (slave trade 1807, slavery 1833)
Large gender and class divide, religion very important
Queen Victoria is monarch
2
Q
What is liberalism as a 19th century political ideology?
A
An ideology that advocates for civil liberties under the rule of law, with an emphasis on economic freedom (laissez-faire
3
Q
What is free trade?
A
The ability to trade without tariffs and the view that trade is beneficial for a nation. It is a core liberal value
4
Q
What is Home Rule?
A
The view that Irish people should have their own parliament in their own country
5
Q
What is the extension of the franchise?
A
Giving more people the right to vote
6
Q
What were some key Tory/Conservative beliefs in 1846?
A
Support for the Church of England Represented the richest landowners Supported the monarchy and nobility Support for protectionism and the Corn Laws Support for Empire Opposing expansion of the franchise 'Monarchy, Church, and Empire' Following Peel's Tamworth Manifesto (1834), the idea that the party would avoid unneccesary change, but would "reform to survive"
7
Q
What were some key Whig beliefs in 1846?
A
Support for religious freedom for non-conformists
Support for consitutional monarchy
Representing the interests of wealthy merchants and the gentry
Support for free trade and small government
8
Q
What is the link between the Industrial Revolution and political reform?
A
The Industrial Revolution led to industrialisation and urbanisation. Many industrialists became rich and began to demand the right to vote, and new industrial cities e.g. Manchester demanded representation. With dense populations, discontent in these cities could easily turn to violence e.g. the Peterloo Massacre (1819). In large part to satisfy these demands, the Great Reform Act was passed in 1832 to extend the franchise and give representation to new industrial cities.
9
Q
When was Peel’s second ministry and what were its key accompanishments?
A
1841-46
1842 Mines and Collieries Act: prohibited underground work for those under 10 and women
1842 Income Tax Act: reintroduced a flat income tax for those earning over a certain amount
1844 Factories Act: introduced new safety standards e.g. fencing off all dangerous machinery and made it a criminal offence to fail to meet these. Limited the working hours for young people and women in factories e.g. children could only work 6.5 hours per day, with 3 hours of schooling
1844 Railway Regulation Act: created minimum standards of comfort for third class carriages to improve the standards of railways for the poor
Removal of import and export duties on more than 700 items, which he could afford to do as a result of the new Income Tax
Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
10
Q
Why were the Corn Laws unpopular? What led to their repeal?
A
They kept grain prices artificially high by levying tariffs, leading to high food prices
They were most unpopular with workers and industrialists, while they were supported by landowners
In 1839 the Anti-Corn Law League was founded in Manchester and its leader (Richard Cobden) was able to influence Peel
The magazine The Economist was founded and advocated for their repeal
The Irish Potato Famine was exacerbated by the Corn Laws, convincing Peel on the need to repeal
Peel was ideologically predisposed to free trade and believed prime ministers should do what is right, rather than what MPs believe
Peel repealed the Corn Laws without the support of many Tories but with the support of much of his cabinet, Whigs, and Radicals, but was defeated on his Irish Coercion Bill later that night and resigned shortly after
11
Q
What was the political fallout of the repeal of the Corn Laws?
A
The Whigs came to power under Lord John Russell, as Peel resigned following the failure of the Irish Coercion Bill and the Tories had fractured so could not form a majority
The Tories split, with Peel and his pro-free trade supporters forming the Peelites. This included almost all of the high-ranking Tories who had held office, including the Home Secretary, the Foreign Secretary (The Earl of Aberdeen) and Gladstone. Disraeli was left as a major figure in the party.
The Peelites would merge with the Radicals and Whigs in 1859 to form the Liberal Party.
Though the Tories returned to power in 1852, this was for less than a year, and the administration was nicknamed the “Who? Who?” ministry, from the cries of the Duke of Wellington as the list of inexperienced cabinet members was read out. The Tories would not form a majority government until 1874.
Many Tories later came to accept repeal. Despite Disraeli’s prediction of agricultural ruin if repeal took place, he refused to reinstate tariffs as prime minister, declaring the matter as settled.
12
Q
When was Russell’s first ministry and what were its key accompanishments? What was its major issue?
A
1846-52
1847 Factory Act limited working hours of women and young people in textile mills to 10 hours per day (major Radical cause)
1847 Irish Poor Law Extension Act introduced the Gregory Clause (no relief for anyone owning more than 1/4 acre of land) and shifted the cost of relief wholly to Irish landowners
1849 Repeal of the Navigation Acts, which heavily regulated and taxed trade with other countries and the colonies
Russell often feuded with the foreign secretary, Palmerston (e.g. over the Don Pacifico affair). Palmerston was forced to resign in 1851 after recognising Napoleon’s coup without seeking royal approval, but in return brought down the administration, leading to Derby’s government.
13
Q
What were the Peelites?
A
A splinter group from the Conservatives, who formed a loose group under Peel after his resignation as PM. They included much of his cabinet, so nearly all of the high ranking Tories who had held office, including the Home Secretary, the Foreign Secretary (The Earl of Aberdeen) and Gladstone. There were around 50 Peelite MPs and 70 sympathetic, pro-free trade Conservatives, enough to keep the Tories out of power after the 1847 election.
They were not a party as such, sitting with the Tories in the House of Commons and generally expected to rejoin at one point or another, but they voted with the Whigs on key issues to keep the protectionist Tories (led by the Earl of Derby) out of power.
They lost influence in the 1850s as the issue of trade declined, with the Conservatives saying they would not reintroduce corn duties. By 1857 they only had 25 MPs and by 1859 they were largely irrelevant.
14
Q
Who were the Radicals?
A
A political group supporting more extreme reforms. There were around 54 MPs who could be described as Radical from 1847-59, but much of their support came from northern industrial cities, which were underrepresented in Parliament. They supported the extension of the franchise (though there was disagreement over how far this should go, with consensus that middle class interest should be more represented), religious equality, Italian unification, freedom of the individual, and free trade. Prominent members included Richard Cobden and John Bright. However, support for oppressed people and freedom of the individual often came into conflict e.g. John Bright's opposition to the 1847 Factories Act. They had greater influence in pressure groups such as the National Education League. They merged into the Liberal Party in 1859.
15
Q
What were the hallmarks of British political life from 1846-1865?
A
Difficulty to form a stable government: MPs tended to think of themselves as individuals first and party men second, there were a large number of independent MPs, the Conservatives were fragmented with the Peelites, and coalition governments (e.g. Whig-Peelite) were common, leading to unstable governments
Conservative inability to form a majority government: most other parties were pro-free trade so could come together to form a government, while the Conservatives had little allies; the Peelites held a significant number of seats (~50 in 1847) and voted to keep the protectionist Tories out of power; the Whigs and Peelites had the majority of famous politicians of the time, with the 1852 Derby administration nicknamed the “Who? Who?” Ministry. As a result, the Conservatives largely abandoned their opposition to free trade in this time.
16
Q
How did changing economic and social conditions help lead to the formation of the Liberal Party?
A
Rapid population growth (from 16 million in 1801 to 31 million in 1871), especially in major industrial cities, whose residents demanded cheaper products, so usually free trrade
Radicals grew in number, especially in northern cities and in pressure groups such as the Anti-Corn Law League
The growth of the industrial and middle class led to a growing electorate of people opposed to trade and economic barriers
Non-Conformists (e.g. Baptists) grew in number, who generally supported the Whigs
Railways expanded, allowing people to move around more easily, helping the spread of liberal ideas
Growth of the ‘petite bourgeoisie’, which generally supported individual liberty, free trade, and small, acoountable government
17
Q
What was the impact of Gladstone, Russell, and Palmerston on the formation of the Liberal Party?
A
Gladstone’s journey from Tory to Liberal convinced others that it was possible and his views on economics (Gladstonian finance: balanced budgets, low taxes, and laissez faire) came to define the Liberal Party when it was in need of a unifying force.
Russell had a vision to unite Whigs and Peelites into one party so had an important role in uniting the coalition
Palmerston was Prime Minister during the unification, but often feuded with Russell
18
Q
What was the Don Pacifico affair and its impact on British politics?
A
An example of gunboat diplomacy: In 1850 Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jewish diplomat serving in Greece had his house burned down in an anti-Semetic riot. He demanded compensation from the Greek government, but they refused. As he was also a British subject, Palmerston (the Foreign Secretary) sent a naval squadron to blockade Greece until they agreed to his demands, which they later did. Palmerston was opposed by Gladstone and Russell, but his proposal was passed in the Commons after his five-hour ‘Civis Romanus sum’ speech.
19
Q
What were the 1848 revolutions and their impact on British politics?
A
A series of revolutions against European monarchies, leading to liberal reforms in some. Palmerston strongly supported revolutionaries, protesting Austria’s repression and wanting to meet Hungarian revolutionary Lajos Kossuth at his country house. The Cabinet had to vote down this meeting, with Queen Victoria asking Russell for Palmerston’s resignation. Instead he received trade unionists who praised Kossuth, regarded as a snub to the royals.
Liberal sentiment also increased in the UK and Palmerston’s vocal support for revolutionaries was therefore very popular.
20
Q
What was the Arrow incident and its impact on British politics?
A
In 1856, during the Second Opium War, China seized the British ship Arrow. The governor of Hong Kong ordered a bombardment of Canton, where it was seized. Palmerston supported this but Gladstone, Russell, and the Tories did not, so the Commons passed a bill opposing it. In the next election Palmerston used his support for the blockade in his campaign, leading to the more interventionist Whigs benefitting at the expense of less interventionist Peelites. Gladstone changed his views while the rift between Palmerston and Russell grew.
21
Q
What was the Crimean War and its impact on British politics?
A
In 1853 the Ottomans declared war on Russia. The Tories, Peelites, and PM Aberdeen were against joining in, but the Whigs (including Palmerston) and the British press were in favour, and in 1854 Britain joined alongside France. However, the British war effort was marked by gross mismanagement, with many deaths, and public opinion turned against the government. In 1855 the Commons voted for an investigation into mismanagement, viewed as a vote of no confidence in the government, leading to Aberdeen’s government resigning and Palmerston becoming PM.
22
Q
What was Italian unification and its impact on British politics?
A
From 1848 to 1870 the Italian states gradually unified under Piedmont-Sardinia. Gladstone was outraged by the treatment of political prisoners in Italian states, having visited in 1850. He wrote letters to Aberdeen in support of the prisoners, which won him popularity in Britain. By 1854 he supported Italian unification (even though it was against British strategic interests, as it would weaken Austria, which would in turn strengthen Russia) and believed Italy needed Britain’s support. This led him to align with Palmerston, who also supported unification, helping the formation of the Liberal Party, as it led to him joining a Whig-Radical alliance and meant he was willing to serve under Palmerston, despite their differences elsewhere.
23
Q
What was Gladstone’s political career from 1852-55?
A
From 1852-55 he served as Chancellor in Aberdeen’s ministry. His handling of public finance was arguably the main success of the government: nearly all duties on foodstuffs were abolished in the 1853 budget and duties on manufactured goods were halved. The income tax increased as well as government borrowing in order to pay for the Crimean War.
24
Q
What was Gladstone’s political career from 1859-65?
A
From 1859-65 he served as Palmerston’s Chancellor in the first Liberal ministry. He reduced the number of people subject to the income tax, meaning no working people were liable, though rising government expenditure meant he could not abolish it as he desired, especially as Palmerston wanted more money for foreign policy. In 1865 he reduced the tax to 6d in the £. He sent Richard Cobden to Paris in 1860 to negotiate ‘the Cobden treaty’, a free trade agreement between Britain and France. In 1861 he abolished the duty on paper, helping the growth of newspapers (he called this ‘the tax on knowledge’). By 1865 Britain was essentially a free trade state, with only 16 remaining import duties.
25
How did Gladstone reform the Civil Service?
He introduced competitive examinations
Each department was made accountable for its budget and expenditure
As a result, the Civil Service became more efficient and leaner
26
What is limited liability? How was Gladstone involved?
The idea that if a company fails, investors are only liable to cover the cost of their initial investment, not the whole company. It makes investment much less risky and more attractive.
Gladstone introduced this into law by two acts of Parliament, in 1856 and 1862
27
How did Gladstonian Liberalism differ to traditional Liberalism?
Gladstone carried over some of his Conservative social values e.g. he was against giving all men the vote, though he did support extension of the franchise
He supported a peaceful foreign policy, in contrast to Palmerston's gunboat diplomacy and more in line with Peel
Gladstone preferred to focus on domestic rather than foreign policy
Greater concern for the middle and lower classes e.g. with the legal recognition of trade unions in 1871. Led to the nickname 'The People's William'
He brought a moral fervour to ideas he supported e.g. Italian unification, in contrast to the 'rational' positions of earlier liberals
28
What were the key ideas of Gladstonian Liberalism?
By 1868 (his first ministry) his key beliefs were in peace, retrenchment, and reform
He believed in extending the franchise (though not giving all men the vote) and parliamentary reform
He supported disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland as well as reform in Ireland
He supprorted an ethical, peaceful foreign policy
29
Why have some historians argued that the Liberal Party did not start in proper until after Palmerston's and Russell's departure from politics?
They both obstinately held on to some anti-liberal beliefs, such as Russell's opposition to the secret ballot and Palmerston's opposition to further extension of the franchise. The Liberal Party could therefore not enact many liberal reforms until they were gone.
30
How did Gladstone reform education in his first ministry?
Education Act of 1870: established elected school boards throughout the country, leading to nearly 4000 new schools run by local boards by 1883. Spending on education rose from £1.6m in 1870 to £5.1m in 1885. In 1876 an extension to the act led to compulsory attendance. The Act was not an idea specific to Gladstone's administration but rather had been discussed since an 1861 royal commission revealed the inadequacies in public education.
The Act was controversial: schools were traditionally run by the Church of England, so many religious people were worried about the state expanding into education, especially as Gladstone first insisted on secular education in state schools. He compromised on this, but this caused discontent among Nonconformists, leading to many withdrawing their support from Gladstone in the 1874 election.
31
How did Gladstone reform voting in his first ministry?
Ballot Act of 1872: introduced secret ballots. Before the act, there were allegations of corruption, as people could be coerced or bribed (usually by landowners or politicians) to vote for certain candidates. It was particularly impactful in Ireland, where landlords were very powerful, and allowed the Home Rule Party to achieve great success in their first election in 1874.
32
How did Gladstone advance meritocracy in his first ministry?
Competitive examiniations were introduced for the Civil Service (except the Foreign Office, which was seen as too important to be opened to the middle class), replacing the old system based mostly on personal influence and nepotism.
Cardwell's reforms of the army streamlined organisation, eliminated bought commissions, and gave the Secretary of State for War more power, among other things. They were brought about by the poor performance of aristocratic officers during the Crimean War. However, the reforms had limitations: personal connections remained important, and there was still no general staff until after the disasterous Boer War.
33
How did Gladstone reform trade unions in his first ministry?
Trade Union Act of 1871: gave legal recognition to unions. Before 1871 their position in law was unclear, and the 1867 legal case Hornby v Close ruled they were legal but had no legal protections - they could not sue or be sued. Following this, in 1868 the Trades Union Congress was formed and a royal commission pressured for legal recognition.
However, a separate act in 1871 made picketing illegal, though this was repealed in 1875 by the Conservatives.
34
How did Gladstone reform public health in his first ministry?
Licensing Act of 1872: tried to curb excessive drinking by reducing the number of drinking establishments and regulating pub opening and closing hours. It was very unpopular and contributed to his 1874 defeat.
Contagious Diseases Act of 1869: allowed the arbitrary arrest of women suspected of prostitution in an attempt to curb VD.
Sanitary Health Act of 1872: partly in response to the Big Stink in London in 1858, allowed councils to introduce public health boards, though this was not required, so that costs or the influence of government were not increased too much.
35
What were Gladstone's key domestic reforms in his first ministry?
Education: greater state involvement and funding through school boards (1870)
Secret ballot (1872)
Competitive examinations for the Civil Service
Cardwell reforms of the army
Legal recognition to unions (1871)
Reducing the number and opening hours of drinking establishments (1872)
36
What was the issue (arguably) with much of Gladstone's legislation?
It was largely permissive i.e. giving people the freedom to do something rather than mandating it e.g. with public health boards
37
What were Gladstone's views on the American Civil War?
He supported independence for small nations wanting freedom, which included the Confederacy, so spoke out in favour of the CSA. There was also pressure from some industrialists for Britain to recognise the CSA, as the Union blockade was disrupting the cotton supply for British factories, even though many workers were pro-Union as they disliked slavery. Gladstone was impressed by the workers' moral stand and chose not to officially recognise the CSA.
38
What was Britain's position during the Franco-Prussian War (1870)?
They stayed neutral after both sides agreed to respect Belgian independence. Britain was worried by Prussia's growing power, Bismarck's 'blood and iron' foreign policy, and opposition to liberalism, which could pose a challenge to peaceful diplomacy in Europe, but France was a traditional enemy and had expressed interest in taking Belgium.
The rapid collapse of France was a surprise, but there was much Britain could do to prevent Prussia's growing power.
39
What was the issue with Russia and the Black Sea during the Franco-Prussian War?
In the 1856 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Crimean War, Russia agreed to dismantle their naval base in Sevastopol and to respect the 1848 Straits Convention, which forbade the passage of Russian warships through the Dardanelles. However, they broke the treaty during the Franco-Prussian War, as Britain was powerless to stop them without French and Austrian support, weakening international law and peaceful diplomacy.
40
What was the Alabama arbitration?
The Alabama was a warship built in Britain and used by the CSA to sink Union ships during the Civil War. Afterwards, the USA demanded compensation, saying the UK had violated its neutrality. Gladstone agreed to abide by arbitration in order to promote peace and lawfulness. During the hearing, the claims increased to include indirect losses, forcing Britain to pay over £3m. This seemed humiliating, but also strengthened US-UK relations.
41
What was Gladstone's overall policy on the colonies during his first ministry?
Gladstone wanted to reduce the financial and military commitment of the Empire, resisting calls for expansion and intervention
42
What happened on the Gold Coast during Gladstone's first ministry?
Unrest on the Gold Coast in 1872 forced Gladstone to accept a military expedition in 1873, despite his desire to reduce financial and military commitment to the Empire
43
What happened in South Africa during Gladstone's first ministry?
When diamonds were discovered in South Africa, the Cabinet agreed to British control over the diamond fields but took no action; the initiative was taken by the British Governor of Cape Colony, who annexed the areas, leading to greater British control.
44
What happened in Fiji during Gladstone's first ministry?
Australian settlers dominated the constitutional monarchy set up in 1871 and petitioned Britain to annex the island. Gladstone obstructed this, but Disraeli annexed it when he took power in 1874.
45
What happened in Canada during Gladstone's first ministry?
Gladstone was unable to prevent Canada from imposing duties on imported goods from Britain, which ignored the government's desire for free trade
46
How did Disraeli react to Gladstone's foreign policy? How did Gladstone respond?
Disraeli made great play of Gladstone's confused colonial policy: he appeared to dislike the costs of colonialism, but did not stop its expansion, and looked weak on the Canadian trade issue. The Conservatives' approach of protecting British interests and enthusiastically supporting Empire led partially to their victory in 1874.
From 1876-78 Gladstone became very effective at attacking Disraeli's foreign policy, especially over the issue of Turkey
47
What happened with Turkey in 1875-78?
In 1875 uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina (controlled by the Ottomans) presented an opportunity for Russia to expand its infulence, under the guise of helping the Bosnian Christian minority. Disraeli sided with Turkey, opposing the Russian and Austrian Berlian Memorandum (which treatened retaliation if Turkey did not reform Bosnia's government), as Russian influence could threaten Britain's route to India.
In 1876, Turkey ruthelessly crushed unrest in Bulgaria. Disraeli dismissed reports of atrocities as "coffee house babble", but they were true, leading to harsh criticism of Disraeli, especially by Gladstone. Gladstone came out of retirement to return to politics and published a pamphlet criticising Disraeli.
In March 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey. Disraeli wanted to support Turkey, backed by much of the public but foreign secretary Derby, Salisbury, and Carnarvon were against this. Britain sent the navy and troops to the Mediterranean to prevent Russia gaining control of the Dardanelles, causing Derby and Carnarvon to resign and Salisbury to become foreign secretary. Russia, however, advanced to Constantinople, imposing a harsh truce on Turkey, exacerbating calls from the British public for war with Russia.
In 1878, the Congress of Berlin met to make peace, with Britain, Austria, and Germany unifying to demand of Russia a fairer settlement. This happened, causing Disraeli to claim he had brought back 'Peace with Honour' (despite Salisbury doing most of the work), that Russia's Mediterranean ambitions had been defeated, that Constantinople was safe, and that the British route to India had been preserved. In addition, the weakening of the Dreikaiserbund meant Russia eventually drew closer to Britain, and part of Bulgaria gained independence, but also that tension remained in the Balkans.
48
What was Gladstone's mission?
To pacify Ireland
49
Why did Ireland pose a problem for Gladstone?
Religious unrest: majority Catholic population vs established Anglican Church of Ireland, unpopular tithe (10% tax to the Church), Gladstone's Anglicanism vs Liberal party values
Unfair economic situation: Protestants owned most of the land despite being a minority
Fenian outrages: the Fenian Brotherhood, a revolutionary movement for independence, carried out attacks in the UK, which shocked Victorian Britain
50
What were the demands of the Irish Tenant Right League?
The 'Three Fs' (originated in the 1850s):
Fair rent: rent control, decided by land courts, not landlords
Free sale: the right for a tenant to sell the interest in his holding to an incoming tenant without landlord interference
Fixity of tenure: meaning a tenant could not be evicted if he had paid the rent
51
How did Gladstone reform Ireland's land situtation?
Irish Land Act of 1870: in Ulster, tenants were by custom compensated for their improvements to their property/farm/land if they were evicted, which boosted productivity. The act gave legal force to this Ulster Tenant Right and extended it to the whole of Ireland.
In addition, if tenants were evicted for any reason other than failure to pay rent, they could apply for 'disturbance allowance'; tenants who wished to buy their land could borrow 2/3 of the cost from the government and slowly repay this; and landlords could no longer charge 'exorbitant' rents to force tenants out, though 'exorbitant' was not clearly defined. In addition 'long leaseholders' of over 31 years were exempted from the bill, and most tenants could still not afford to buy their land.
52
How did Gladstone attempt to reform education in Ireland?
Irish University Bill of 1873: Aimed to establish a new University of Dublin, without Church affiliation (not secular - still distinctly Christian - but non-denominational), which was meant to encourage less religious hatred and rivalry. However, it was strongly opposed by the Catholic Church in Ireland, as it meant a loss of its independent higher education colleges. Protestants also disliked it as it seemed to force Protestants and Catholics together. The government was therefore defeated on the measure by three votes, a partial factor in their downfall in 1874.
53
How did Gladstone reform religion in Ireland?
Irish Church Act of 1869: separated the (Anglican) Church of Ireland from the Church of England and disestablished the Church of Ireland. As a result, the system of tithes also ended in Ireland. The Act played a key role in dismantling the Protestant Ascendancy.
54
What factors led to Gladstone being known as 'The People's William'?
Successful policies to help the working class: kept those from earning below £100/year from paying income tax; reduced the number of items subject to import duties, including printed materials; gave legal recognition to unions
First party leader to win elections using stump oratory speeches and national print media: 1862 tour of the North East; held rallies of 20,000 people in the Midlothian campaign of 1879-80
55
What were Gladstone's key Irish reforms in his first ministry?
1869 Irish Church Act - disestablished Church of Ireland
1870 Irish Land Act - extended compensation for tenants who improved their land, disturbance allowance, loans for tenants to buy lands, protection against 'exhorbitant' rents
56
What were the key issues of foreign policy in Gladstone's first ministry?
Franco-Prussian War (1870)
Russia violating the 1856 Treaty of Paris (1870)
Alabama arbitration (1869-72)
Unrest on the Gold Coast (1872) and military expedition (1873)
Discovery of diamonds in South Africa; annexation by the governor of Cape Colony
Petition by Australian settlers in Fiji for the country to be annexed by Britain (1871, did not happen until 1874 under Disraeli)
Canada imposed duties on imported products from Britain
57
Who were the key Liberals involved in Gladstone's first ministry?
Henry Bruce: Home Secretary (until 1873), then Lord President of the Council
George Goschen: President of the Poor Law Board (until 1871), then First Lord of the Admiralty
W.E. Forster: Education Secretary
Edward Cardwell: Secretary of State for War
John Bright: President of the Board of Trade (until 1871), then Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
58
How was Gladstone helped by Cardwell in his first ministry?
He instituted the Cardwell Reforms in response to the inefficiencies of the British army, demonstrated in the Crimean War and the Sepoy Mutiny. These included aboloshing flogging, reducing the army enlistment term (from 12 years active service to 6 years active service 6 years reserve), and introducing a breech-loading rifle as the main army rifle. The most important reform was abolishing bought commissions and promotions, instead basing them on merit. Despite fierce oppositon from officers and the Conservatives, the success of these reform was demonstrated in the efficient British conquest of Egypt in 1882.
59
How was Gladstone helped by John Bright in his first ministry?
He opposed Gladstone's proposal for Home Rule in Ireland, but, as he was strongly opposed to the privileges of the landed aristocracy, helped Gladstone with the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland and with land reform.
60
How was Gladstone helped by Henry Bruce in his first ministry?
As Home Secretary, he was responsible for the Licensing Bill of 1872, which restricted pub hours and numbers, in response to the Band of Hope pressure group. However, as this was a very unpopular policy, it may have actually been a hindrance to Gladstone (who had very little involvement with the bill), helping cause his defeat in 1874.
61
How was Gladstone helped by Forster in his first ministry?
Forster, as Education Secretary, was instrumental in the passage of the 1870 Education Act. He allowed the Cower-Temple Clause to be added to the bill, which aimed to reduce the concerns of Nonconformists by forcing all religious teaching in state schools to be non-denominational. Though many Nonconformists remained unhappy with the bill, the clause allowed it to pass.
62
What are the two interpretations of the 1874 election?
Liberal weaknesses caused them to lose
| Conservative strengths caused them to win
63
What is the evidence behind the interpretation that Liberal weaknesses caused them to lose the 1874 election?
A weaker platform and the reformng impulse had died down since 1868: Gladstone was campaigning mostly on abolishing the income tax in 1874, but this did not rally supporters as much as Ireland and education had in 1868.
Some reforms had been disappointing e.g. the Trade Union Act of 1871, as picketing had also been made illegal in the same year.
The Liberal foregin policy was seen as weak: Gladstone wanted to reduce the financial and military commitment of Empire, but failed to do this, and his promotion of ethics over British interests was unpopular with some.
Nonconformists were angered by the Education Act of 1870 and many switched to the Conservatives for the next election.
The Licensing Act of 1872 was unpopular with Nonconformists (for not going far enough), lower classes, and liberals (for infringing on freedoms).
The ministers seemed to have lost their energy: Disraeli referred to the front bench as "a row of exhausted volcanoes".
64
What is the evidence behind the interpretation that Conservative strength caused them to win the 1874 election?
Disraeli's 1872 speeches in Manchester and the Crystal Palace energised supporters for One Nation Conservatism.
John Gorst successfully reformed the party by creating a National Conservative Associaton that would supply suitable candidates to local constituencies. As a result, the Conservatives contested many more seats: in 1868 Liberals won 213 seats without contest, while in 1874 this was 150.
65
Why was Disraeli perhaps an unlikely Prime Minister?
He did not attend a public school or Oxford or Cambridge
He was from a Jewish family, though he was baptised a Christian
He lost most of his money speculating on stocks in the 1820s. He later married a rich woman 12 years his senior who paid off his debts
He took five attempts to be elected as an MP in the 1830s
His maiden speech in 1837 was a failure and he was laughed at
He wrote novels, seen as a frivolous occupation for a politician
He criticised the repeal of the Corn Laws, seen as a betrayal of Peel by many senior Tories, most of whom defected to the Peelites.
66
What was One Nation Conservatism?
A paternalistic form of Conservatism, with the idea that it is the aristocracy's duty to look after the lower social classes. Disraeli coined the term as an appeal to working-class people.
67
What was the 1867 Reform Act? Why was it passed and what was its effect?
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An Act which granted the vote to all householders in the boroughs and to lodgers who paid rent of £10 a year or more. In the counties the property threshold was also reduced, giving the vote to agricultural landowners and tenants with small amounts of land.
It was passed after the death of Palmerston, a rigid opponent of parliamentary reform, in 1865, as well as pressure from the Reform League (established in 1865) and wider popular unrest. Gladstone came to support parliamentary reform in 1864 and Disraeli, the PM, was in favour of it.
The Act doubled the electorate, from 1m to 2m of the 7m adult men in England and Wales, and allowed some working class men to vote for the first time. The larger electorate, in addition to the abolition of secret ballots in 1872, meant party spending and campaigning costs increased (as bribery of a small number of people was no longer effective). As a result, the Commons became more upper class, as only they could afford these increased costs. In 1868 a Redistribution Act redrew boundaries to create more favourable constituencies for the Conservatives, but the wider electorate created by the Reform Act led to Liberal victory in 1868, despite Disraeli's intentions.
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68
How did Disraeli reform labour in his second ministry?
1874 Factory Act: reduced maximum hours to 56.5 hours per week and ended employment of children under 10
1875 Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act: legalised peaceful picketing
1875 Employers and Workment Act: ensured strikery were not liable to criminal prosecution for breach of contract
1878 Factory and Workshop Act: estalbished inspections of workshops employing fewer than 50 people
69
How did Disraeli reform health in his second ministry?
1874 Intoxicating Liquor Act: extending opening hours by 30 minutes, removed the restriction on watering beer, and reduced police rights to enter pubs
1875 Public Health Act: made it compulsory for local authorities to provide adequate drainage and sewerage, to monitor and control infectious diseases and sewearage, and regulate burials and street lighting
1875 Sale of Food and Drugs Act: established standards for food preperation and sent inspectors to enforce this
1876 River Pollution Act: stopped dumping of noxious substances in waterways
70
How did Disraeli reform housing in his second ministry?
1875 Artisans' and Labourers' Dwelling Act: allowed local authorities to pull down slums and build more sanitary houses
1875 Agricultural Holdings Act: helped secure the position of tenant farmers, with a voluntary process to settle disputes
1876 Enclosures Act: preserved green spaces for recreation
71
How did Disraeli reform the economy in his second ministry?
1874 budget: reduced income tax by one penny and cut duties, more funding for the mentally ill and the police. He later had to raise the income tax to finance expensive wars in South Africa and Afghanistan.
72
How did Disraeli reform education in his second ministry?
1876 Education Act (Sandon Act): set up Local School Attendance Committees to enforce attendance, allowed surplus school boards to be dissolved, meant children aged 10-14 could not be employed without a certificate of school attendance or attainment
73
How did Disraeli reform shipping in his second ministry?
1876 Merchant Shipping Act: prevented overloading of ships by painting the Plimsoll line on the side to show maximum load
74
What happened in Fiji during Disraeli's second ministry?
Britain annexed Fiji in 1874, something Gladstone's government had avoided, and making Disraeli's government look strong.
75
What happened in the Malay States during Disraeli's second ministry?
British indirect colonial rule was established over the states in 1874, giving the British greater control
76
What happened in West Africa during Disraeli's second ministry?
Colonial secretary Lord Carnarvon worked to eliminate slavery there and set up the Gold Coast Protectorate
77
What happened with the Suez Canal during Disraeli's second ministry?
Ownership of the Suez Canal, an important link to India, was split, with around half of the shares owned by France and slightly less than half owned by the government of Egypt, with the rest owned by Ottoman citizens. However, in 1875, the ruler of Egypt (Isma'il Pasha) suffered a financial crisis, presenting the possibility of France gaining control of the Canal. Disraeli gained a £4m loan from the Rothschild bank in order to buy these shares instead, making Britain the largest shareholder of the Suez Canal Company.
78
What happened in India during Disraeli's second ministry?
Disraeli's government passed the Royal Titles Act (1876), giving Queen Victoria the title 'Empress of India'.
79
What were some reasons contributing to Conservative defeat in the 1880 election?
The Long Depression was ongoing: unemployment rose from 2% in 1871 to 11% in 1879. The Conservative party had no real response to this
Gladstone led a highly successful Midlothian campaign, with rallies of 20,000 people during 1879-80
Liberals made successful moralistic attacks on Conservative foreign policy
John Gorst had resigned in 1877 so the Conservative party machine was not as successful
Expensive wars in South Africa and Afghanistan meant income tax had to be raised, which was unpopular
Disraeli waited too long to call an election, so his success at the Congress of Berlin had slipped somewhat from public memory
The working class vote returned to the Liberal party after trade union legislation was passed
80
What were the major parliamentary reforms of Gladstone's second ministry?
1883 Corrupt Practices Act: dealt with bribery at elections, setting limits to expenses and banning the hiring of vehicles to take voters to the polls
1884 Third Reform Act: established a unified franchise throughout the country by extending the concessions granted to the boroughs in the 1867 election to the countryside. All men paying £10 rental and all those owning land valued at £10 now had the vote. As a result, the electorate more than doubled to 5.7m and 60% of adult men now had the vote. This was strongly supported by Radicals
1885 Redistribution Act: passed to satiate the Lords after the passage of the Reform Act, making constituencies roughly equal in size with a commission to review this as the population changed.
81
What were the major non-parliamentary reforms of Gladstone's second ministry?
1880 Burials Act: allowed Nonconformists to hold burials in a parish churchyard with their own denomination of service, rather than having to have Anglican
Repeal of the malt tax on barley, which was replaced with a tax on beer, pleasing both farmers and the temperance faction
1880 Ground Game Act: allowed tenant farmers to shoot hares and rabbits on their rented land
1880 Education Act: required school boards to enforce compulsory attendance until age 10
1882 Married Women's Property Act: allowed married women to retain control of their property, rather than it passing to the direct control of their husbands
82
What were the major reforms of Rosebury's ministry?
1894 establisment of parish councils to extend democracy to rural areas and lessen the influence of the landed classes
1894 budget raised the basic rate of income tax (to 1s 8d) but extended relief to those on lower incomes
Increased duties on beer and spirits
Introduction of death duties on landed estates and personal property
83
What were the major reforms of Salisbury's second ministry?
1888 Local Government Act: set up 62 county councils to take over administrations of counties. These were elected by ratepayers (including women) and were responsible for roads, bridges, and asylums, and shared control of the police with magistrates. The London County Council was set up but was split into boroughs in 1899 to reduce its powers, as it proved too radical for the Tories
1889 Technical Institution Act: aimed to improve technical skills for those entering industry, intending to build a workforce to rival Germany
1890 Housing of the Working Class Act: allowed local authorities to buy land for housing and rent it out to working-class tenants, though the tenants had to pay market rates
1891 Elementary Education Act: made elementary education free and established a Board of Education with a grant of £2m
1891 Tithes Act: ended the payment of tithes for tenant farmers
84
What was the major reform of Salisbury's third ministry?
1897 Voluntary Schools Act: made more funding available to schools. This was very popular amongst Conservatives as it helped shore up funding for Church (Anglican) Schools.
85
Why did Ireland return to the fore of British politics in 1880?
In the 1880 election 63 Irish Home Rule Party MPs were elected to the Commons
Gladstone returned to power, who had stated that it was his mission to pacify Ireland in 1868
The 'Land War' was very popular in Ireland
Depression led to a slump in agricultural prices in 1879, whic led to more evictions; many of these were resisted, following the leadership of the National Land League
Parnell was the leader of the Home Rule League and used obstruction tactics in parliament to draw attention to Ireland
Irish emigrants who had prospered in the USA financially supported the Home Rule campaign
86
How did Gladstone approach the Irish Question in his second and third ministries?
Second ministry: Irish Land Act 1881, which instituted the '3 Fs' (fixity of tenure, fair rents, and free sale of leases). This caused rents to fall by 20% within a few years and successfully reduced arrarian outrage.
Coercion Act 1881, which allowed for those suspected to be involved in the Land War to be interned without trial. Parnell was imprisoned in October 1881, causing violence to flare up again.
Third mimistry: he introduced a Home Rule Bill, but this was defeated after 93 Liberals rebelled. He called another election, which the Liberals lost.
87
How did Salisbury approach the Irish Question in his ministries?
He was opposed to Home Rule, instead attempting to pacify Ireland so Home Rule became less of a priority - "killing Home Rule with kindness"
1887 Land Act - allowed rents to be adjusted as prices fell
1903 Land Purchase Act - loaned treasury money to tenants at low rates, allowing many tenant farmers to buy their land
1887 Crimes Act - allowed agrarian violence crimes to be tried without a jury. Balfour's (the Irish secretary) harsh enforcement of the act led to him being dubbed 'Bloody Balfour'
88
What was 'flying the Hawarden Kite'? How did it affect British politics?
The revelation to the press that Gladstone supported Home Rule in December 1885
Previously, Parnell had assumed that the Conservatives were most likely to bring in Home Rule and encouraged Irish emigrants in England to vote Tory. Following the revelation, the Home Rule Party diverted its support to the Liberals, bringing down Salisbury's government and bringing Gladstone to power again.
89
Who were the Liberal Unionists?
A breakaway party from the Liberals in 1886 following the Liberals' support of Home Rule. They were led by Lord Hartington and Joseph Chamberlain.
They had a large following in the House of Lords, as Lord Hartington was the de facto leader of the aristocratic Whigs, and held the balance of power for the Tories after the 1886 election, voting with the Tories on several key issues to allow them to stay in power. In 1895 they merged with Salisbury's government.
90
What were the causes of the Boer War?
Joseph Chamberlain was colonial secretary and a strong imperialist. He wanted to check Boer power in South Africa, fearing they would ally with the Germans.
Discovery of gold in 1886 - gold was discovered in the Transvaal, leading to an influx of British prospectors, which caused tension as the Boers denied them rights, such as the right to vote.
The Jameson Raid of 1895 - Jameson, a friend of Cecil Rhodes, ubvaded the Transvaal with 500 men, anticipating an uprising of British settlers. This did not happen and he was forced to surrender. The German Kaiser congratulated the Boers for this, worsening Anglo-German relations
Strong jingoistic sentiment
91
What happened in the Boer War?
The British were humiliated: 20,000 British lives were lost and £200m was spent to achieve victory
2/5 of recruits were too unfit to fight on account of poor health
92
What was 'splendid isolationism'?
The deplomatic policy Britain held throughout the late 19th century, where Britain did not form alliances, instead relying on its strong navy for defence.
93
How did 'splendid isolationism' end?
In 1902 Britain made a formal alliance with Japan, aiming to prevent Russian expansion in the East and to deter France, Russia, and Germany from taking more territory in China. However, when Japan attacked Russia in 1904 Britain did not get involved.
94
What was the Entente Cordiale?
A 1904 agreement with France to promote greater cooperation between the nations and prevent colonial tensions from escalating. It marked a significant improval of relations and was signed as Britain was worried about the rise of Germany. Russia joined in 1907.
95
What were Balfour's social policies?
1902 Education Act: allowed for state provision for secondary schools, as the Cockerton judgement of 1901 had ruled that secondary provision exceeded the powers of the 1870 Education Act.
1904 Licensing Act: provided pub owners whose license had been revoked by the 1872 Act with compensation. Angered many non-conformists, as it meant the tax-payer paying pub owners.
1905 Unemployed Workmen Act: gave grants to businesses and local authorities through Distress Committees to provide work
96
What was the Taff Vale judgement?
The 1901 ruling that meant employers could sue a union for loss of earnings after a strike which included unlawful picketing, severly restricting the power of unions. The Salisbury government of the time failed to address this, leading to many working class voters moving to the Labour party.
97
Why did tariff reform become an issue at the turn of the 20th century?
By 1900 Britain was at a trade deficit, importing more than it was exporting
The colonial secretary Joseph Chamberlain was heavily in favour of protectionism, arguing that it would benefit British industry and lead to closer ties with the Empire
The Tariff Reform League formed in 1903, arguing in favour of protectionism
98
How did tariff reform affect British politics?
Joseph Chamberlain resigned from government in 1903 to campaign for tariff reform
The Conservative party split and in the 1906 elecion the Liberals won in a landslide - even Balfour lost his seat
A central pillar of the 1906 Liberal campaign was in favour of free trade, such as their 'big loaf, little loaf' messaging
As a result of Liberal victory, tariff reform was not introduced
The Liberal Unionists also split, losing seats and morphing generally into a pro-protectionist party. Their decline in influence was a factor in their merging with the Conservatives in 1912
99
What were the intellectual roots of the Labour Party?
Marxist and Georgist thought
Social Democratic Federation, formed in 1884 by middle and upper class intellectuals
Fabian Society, formed in 1884, producing a steady stream of socialist writing
In 1890 socialist intellectuals were still a small group, numbering around 2000
100
What were the political roots of the Labour Party?
Discontent over the 1901 Taff Vale judgement
The Labour Representation Committee was formed in 1900
The LRC formed a Lib Lab Pact in the 1903, where the Liberals agreed not to field candidates against 30 LRC candidates. This pact would continue until 1914
In the 1906 election 30 LRC MPs were elected, adopting the name the Labour Party
The NUWSS assisted the promotion of Labour in exchange for their support of women's suffrage, helping them gain credibility as a party not just for the working class
Union influence grew significantly
101
How did union power increase in the beginnings of the 20th century?
Workers in trade unions rose from 2.5 million in 1910 to over 4 million in 1914. In 1912 the total working days lost to strikes numbered 40 million.
In 1910 17% of workers were in unions
Many unions merged to consolidate power, such as the Triple Allaince, formed in 1914 of the tree largest unions (miners, railway workers, and transport workers). It had nearly 1.5 million members
Sympathetic strikes became common, where unions would strike in solidarity with each other
In 1912 the Mines Act was passed, giving coal miners a minimum wage in response to strikes
102
Why did the Liberals win the 1906 election in such a landslide?
Landslide election - even Balfour lost his seat
The Conservative party had split over tariff reform, with Joseph Chamberlain resigning in 1903
The Liberals made tariff reform the key issue of the campaign, issuing popular free trade messaging, such as 'big loaf, little loaf'
Non-conformists were outraged by the 1902 Education Act and the 1904 Licensing Act, mobilising against the Conservatives
The Liberals had popular politicians such as Asquith, Lloyd George, and Churchill
Union members disliked the Conservatives' refusal to rectify the Taff Vale judgement
New Liberalism, using the state to meet the needs of the masses, was popular, especially after surveys such as Charles Booth revealed the extent of poverty in Britain
103
What were the origins of the 1909-11 constitutional crisis?
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The Liberals had a large majority in the Commons, while the Conservatives had a Lords majority. Many Conservative peers argued they were the 'watchdog' of the constitution against radical Liberal policies
The Lords rejected various bills from 1906-08 e.g. on education, angering the Liberals
In 1909 Chancellor Lloyd George introduced the 'people's budget' in order to finance social reform and naval spending. It included an inheritance tax and a 'super tax', a higher rate of income tax for the very wealthy, and a land value tax, all of which would be very damaging to the upper class
In November 1909, the Lords rejected the budget 350 to 75, creating the crisis, as convention stated that the Lords did not reject budgets
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104
What happened during the 1909-11 constitutional crisis?
The Liberals called an election in January-February 1910, in which the Liberals just barely won, having to rely on the support of Labour and the Irish Nationalists for a majority
PM Asquith raised the issue of creating a large number of Liberal peers, though King Edward VII would only do so if a new alection was held
In April the Lords passed the budget, but the desire for reform continued
In May Edward died, and the new King George V favoured a compromise, but the Conservatives refused
In the December election the Liberals tied with the Conservatives for seats, holding on with the support of Labour and the Irish Nationalists
Under the threat of flooding the Lords with new Liberal peers, Asquith introduced the Parliament Act in February 1911, stating that the Lords should not vote on money bills, that the Lords should only be able to delay legislation, not reject it, and that elections would be held every five years rather than seven. The Lords passed this.
105
Why did Ireland return to the forefront of British politics in 1910?
The Liberals depended on the Irish Nationalists' support following the 1910 elections, and they leveraged this balance of power to force Home Rule back into mainstream political discourse
The Liberals adopted Irish Home Rule as a policy again and it was passed in 1912 and given Royal Assent in 1914, but was suspended by the outbreak of WW1.
Violence was widespread in Ireland: faced with the inevitability of Home Rule, some Protestants in Ulster reacted with outrage, forming the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary group. The Conservatives under Bonar Law openly expressed their support for armed resistance, while Churchill was prepared to send the army to Belfast to fight the Ulster Volunteers. Nationalists formed the Dublin Volunteers in response and there was a significant risk of civil war, but this was interrupted by WW1.
106
What were the arguments against women having the vote?
Many believed woman were already equal but occupied different spheres to men (domestic vs political) and giving women the vote would jeopardise this
Anti-suffragettes were appaled with the suffragettes' tactics e.g. the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, established in 1908
Many women believed that politics was a man's job and did not want to imitate men, instead choosing to be a 'real woman'
Some thought it would make Britain look weak compared to other countries
107
Who were the suffragettes?
Members of militant women's organisation, particularly the Women's Social and Political Union, who fought for women's suffrage e.g. Emmeline Pankhurst, who founded the WSPU in 1903
108
Who were the suffragists?
People advocating the extension of suffrage, especially to women e.g. Millicent Fawcett, who led the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS)
109
What differentiated the WSPU from the NUWSS?
The WSPU was far more militant than the NUWSS and included working class women
110
How did the suffragettes gain sympathy?
Death of Emily Wilding Davidson in 1913
Hunger strikes - Cat and Mouse Act of 1913, a Liberal law that replaced force-feeding by releasing people doing hunger strikes from prison before they starved and return them once they were healthier, seen as toying with them
111
Who were key individuals involved with poverty surveying?
John Galt, a Scottish Baptist who moved to London to work in the textile industry. He witnessed the expoitation of workers in East London sweatshops and launched a mission to bring gospell and relief to the poor. Following the severe winter of 1893-4 he raised money for relief by touring churches around the country, documenting poverty along the way in magazine accounts and photographs
Charles Booth, who produced a 17 volume report between 1886 and 1903 on poverty in London, using coloured maps to show poverty levels. He found that 35% of Londoners were living in abject poverty and urged for the introduction of old age pensions
Seebohm Rowntree, who documentary in York in 1897-8, finding that nearly half of the people he studied were living in poverty, revealing that poverty was widespread throughout the country. From 1907 he advised Lloyd George and his findings strongly influenced New Liberals
112
What was national efficiency?
The idea that Britain was falling behind in productivity compared to other countries, especially Germany, and that changes in habits needed to be made to improve this
113
What were the findings of the Poor Law Commission of 1905-09?
Majority Report: the state should not supplement the earnings of the poor, as this will only lead to idleness and vice. Essentially agreed with the conclusions of the 1834 commission. Accepts that the state should help the 'deserving poor', those would would die without state help.
Minority Report: argued the state has joint responsibility for the social health of its citizens, alongside the individual, and that the state should provide national minimum standards and ensure a minimum wage
114
What were some key ideas of New Liberalism?
Ensuring equal opportunity for all, which requires social care, access to education, healthcare etc.
State regulation increases freedom rather than simply imposing restrictions
State should have a greater role in preventing poverty, only possible with a small state
Laissez faire policies are causing Britain to fall behind, especially compared to Germany (national efficiency)
115
What were some New Labour (1906-14) reforms?
Old Age Pensions Act 1908 - pensions for needy older citizens, paid for by taxpayers, not the individual, though only given to those with a 'good character'. In 1914 it was expanded to cover 970,000 people
Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 - expanded on the 1897 act of the same name, allowing for the compensation of workers after industrial accidents even if the employer was not found negligent, and for this to apply to clerical workers, bringing 6 million more workers into the scheme
1908 Coal Mines Regulation Act - limited miners' working hours to 8 per day, but in response many employers introduced round the clock 8 hour shifts, leading to more night work
1909 Trade Board Act - created primarily to deal with 'sweated industries' (e.g. tailoring) which were not protected by trade unions and mainly employed women and young people. Set up boards for 4 trades based on tripartism (government, employers, workers), which had the power to set legally binding minimum wages. Largely the work of Churchill
1911 Shops Act - gave shop workers a weekly half-day holiday, known as an 'early closing day'
1911 National Insurance Act - set up a large-scale compulory insurance scheme for fully employed workers earning below £160/year, funded by contributions by workers, employers, and the state. Provided free medical care for unwell workers for up to 26 weeks, disability payments for up to 26 weeks, and maternity payments. Also provided unemployment payments for workers in industries subject to fluctuating demand e.g. shipbuilding.
Educational reforms 1907 e.g. introducing regular medical inspection of schools.
1906 - provision of school meals for destitute children aged between 5-12, though not children who were simply poor.
By 1912 there were 60,000 free grammar school places for poorer children.
Maternity and child welfare centres after 1907, involving local authorities and volunteer organisations and aimed to safeguard infants and reduce child mortality.
116
What were the different attitudes to WW1?
People were generally pro-war in 1914: jingoism, militarism, believed war would be over before Christmas
There had been a popular campaign to build up the naval fleet pre-war and many thought war would boost national efficiency.
German atrocities in Belgium boosted support for war
Anti-war groups included Quakers, some socialists, and conscientious objectors
As the war continued jingoism decreased but dislike of Germany increased, so desire to win remained high
117
What was the Defence of the Realm Act?
Initially passed in August 1914, consideraly expanding government powers by allowing it to maximise the production of goods and food, keep military secrets, protect people and property, and maintain morale.
Under the act key measures were passed: the Ministry of Munitions was established in 1915, allowing the government to take over arms factories. Rationing was introduced in 1918, pub opening hours were reduced, blackouts were introduced, and the government negotiated with trade unions to improve working conditions and allow women and unskilled workers to do skilled work in order to boost productivity.
Conscription was introduced among single men in March 1916 and expanded to married men in May.
118
How were living standards affected by the war?
German U-boat attacks on merchant ships led to food shortages and hunger, particularly in 1917 before the convoy system was introduced
Child labour became more common: between 1914 and 1917 600,000 children were withdrawn from school to work on farms and factories
The Spanish Flu pandemic led to mass casualties
Quality of life improved for some of the poor, women and children, as much of the unskilled working class was too unhealthy to fight, so stayed home, and the labour shortage, rent control, and alcohol restirctions led to workers being able to afford more food (working class spending on food rose by 60%). In addition, war bonuses and a minimum agricultural wage were introduced, and the families of soldiers were given separation payments. School meals for the poor were extended year round, not just in term time.
119
What was the War Coalition?
In 1915 Asquith established a coalition with the Conervatives and Labour. The Liberals still held most key positions (PM, Minister of War (Kitchener), Minister of Munitions (Lloyd George), and foreign secretary), but Conservatives and Labour gained some cabinet posts. The Conservatives forced the adoption of conscription in 1916.
120
What caused the downfall of Asquith's War Coalition?
After Kitchener drowned at sea, Lloyd George took over as Minister of War. On 1st December 1916 he proposed a three man War Council to run the war free from cabinet interference. He had press and some backbench support, but Asquith had the support of the Cabinet. The Liberal party fractured, while many Conservatives were determined to get rid of Asquith. The Conservative leader Bonar Law agreed to support these efforts. Asquith agreed to the War Council on the 3rd December, but withdrew this on the 4th. Lloyd George resigned on the 5th and Asquith on the 6th, believing no other government could be formed. Bonar Law was summoned to form a government and failed to do so, but Labour agreed to serve under Lloyd George and many prominent Conservatives decided to join, while prominent Liberals stuck with Asquith. Lloyd George became prime minister on 7th December 1916, with a mostly Conservative cabinet, while Asquith became the opposition.
121
How did WW1 affect the Conservative party?
Following the outbreak of war, the Conservatives agreed not to contest by-elections and to support the Liberal government
They were highly unified through jingoism, support for conscription, and support for the DoRA
In 1915 they joined the War Coalition
Within the Coalition some Conservatives began to criticise the Liberals over issues such as the shell shortage
In the 1918 election they won 108 seats, becoming by far the largest party in the Commons, though Lloyd George remained PM (as leader of the Coalition)
122
How did WW1 affect the Liberal party?
During the early part of the war the party was unified around Asquith and extremely strongly placed, with the Conservatives having the official policy not to criticise them and Labour splintering over whether to be pro or anti war.
However, they were forced to take many illiberal positions such as heavy control of civilian life
By 1915 they began to be criticised, as the first major British offensive were repelled by the Germans. Much of the criticism was over a shortage of war materiel (the shell shortage), which was published in papers like the Daily Mail and pushed by some Conservative backbenchers.
Following the failure of the Gallipoli Campaign and Churchill's refusal to resign over this, Asquith was forced to abandon the Liberal Government and the War Coalition began.
Following the 1912 split, the Liberal party never recovered: neither Lloyd George's Coalition Liberals nor Asquith's opposition could reach the size of the original party, while the extention of the franchise in 1918 to all men over 21 and some women benefitted Labour, at the Liberals' expense.
123
How did WW1 affect the Labour party?
The outbreak of war lead to a split in the party, with the Independent Labour Party opposing the war and the Labour leader MacDonald resigning over the party's failure to oppose the war budget. Arthur Henderson became leader of the pro-war party.
In 1915 Labour gained a ministerial post for the first time under the Coalition, with Henderson become President of the Board of Education. In Lloyd George's coalition he was promoted to the inner war cabinet and two more Labour MPs became ministers.
Henderson forced Labour out of the coalition after the war, despite the objections of many members, who saw it as giving them a chance at governance. They instead contested the 1918 election, winning 57 seats, though both MacDonald and Henderson lost their seats.
In the long term the party appealed to an extended electorate, Labour leaders experienced powerful government positions, and they gained in popular vote. The split between MacDonald and his colleagues was resolved over a unified over common support of a progressive foreign policy, and in 1922 Labour became the main opposition party.
124
How did the war impact on women's suffrage?
On the outbreak of war the suffrage campaign ceased, with many Suffragettes supporting the war as an opportunity to show that women could contribute, though others were pacifists.
The war allowed women to work in many occupations, including traditionally male ones such as the police.
From early 1917 the state recongised volunteer groups, incorporating them into the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) and other groups, allowing 100,000 women to serve in the armed forces.
Women's wages rose, though only to around two-thirds of men's wages
