Ch. 11 - Animal Forms and Function (A-E) Flashcards
1
Q
Thermoregulation –
- Ectotherms – obtain body heat from ____ (aka poikilotherms/cold-blooded)
- – Invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, fish
- Endotherms – generate their own ____ (aka homeotherms/warm-blooded)
- Regulatory mechanisms
— Evaporation – body heat is removed as liquid evaporates (____)
— Metabolism – muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat
— Surface Area – Vasodilation or vasoconstriction of extremity vessels results in heat retention or removal (blood
flow to ears reduce body temp, countercurrent exchange keeps central parts of body warm)
A
____
environment
body heat
endergonic
2
Q
Invertebrate Respiration:
Cnidaria: Protozoa and Hydra
o Direct with ____: large surface areas and every cell is either exposed to environment or close to it -> ____ of gases directly
with outside environment (e.g. flatworms). Small animals only.
A
environment
simple diffusion
3
Q
Invertebrate Respiration:
Annelids:
o ____ secreted by earthworm provides moist surface for gaseous exchange by ____
o Circulatory system bring ____ to cells and waste products (CO2) back to skin for excretion
A
mucus
diffusion
O2
4
Q
Invertebrate Respiration:
Arthropods (80% of all living species – insects, spiders, crustaceans (crabs), etc…
o Grasshopper
— Series of chitin-lined respiratory tubules called ____ open to surface in openings called ____ through with O2 enters, CO2 exits. No oxygen carrier is needed due to ____ and removal of respiratory gases between air and body cells; diffusion across moistened tracheal endings.
o Spider
— ____: stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chamber
A
trachae
spiracles
direct distribution
book lungs
5
Q
Invertebrate Respiration:
Fish
o Water enters mouth, passes over ____ (evaginated structures, create large ____, take O2 and deposit CO; can be external/unprotected or
internal/protected), exits through ____ (gill cover). ____ between opposing movements of water and underlying
A
gills
SA
operculum
countercurrent exchange
6
Q
Plant Respiration
- Photosynthesis only takes place during the day.
o Photosynthesis produces glucose and gives off oxygen
o While respiration requires oxygen to degrade glucose
- Plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals
o Glucose -> 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid
o Gases diffuse into air space by entering and leaving through ____ of leaves or ____ in woody stems
o Anaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when molecular oxygen is lacking
A
stomata
lenticels
7
Q
Gas exchange in human: CO2 is transported as HCO3- in the plasma (liquid portion of blood), catalyzed by ____ (____ ↔ ____ ↔ H+ + HCO3-) located in the RBC. Some CO2 mixes direct w/ plasma as gas, or binds with hemoglobin in RBCs
A
carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
8
Q
Alveoli – where gas exchange between the circulatory system and the lungs occurs; ____ reduces the surface tension (prevents H2O from collapsing alveoli). There are two types of epithelial cells in human alveoli: type 1 (____) and type 2 (____)
A
surfactant
structural support
produce surfactant
9
Q
Nose (filter, moisten, warms incoming air – mucus secreted by goblet cells traps large dust particles here), pharynx (____ – passageway for food and air; dust/mucus swept back here by ____ for disposal via spitting or swallowing), larynx (____- if ____ enters, cough reflex activates)
A
throat
cilia
voice box
non-gas
10
Q
Trachea (____ covers the trachea during swallowing) – ringed cartilage (____) covered by ciliated mucus cells
A
epiglottis
C-shaped
11
Q
Bronchi, Bronchioles: ____ bronchi, which enter the lungs and branch into narrower ____
Alveoli: Each bronchiole branches ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by ____
A
two
bronchioles
blood-carrying capillaries
12
Q
Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood: Gas exchange across moist, sac membranes of ____. O2 diffuses through alveolar wall, through pulmonary capillary wall, into blood, and into red blood cells. (CO2 is ____)
A
alveoli
opposite
13
Q
Bulk flow of O2: O2 transported through body within ____ containing red blood cells (RBCs)
Diffusion between blood and cells: Oxygen diffuses out of RBCs, across blood capillary walls, into ____, and across cell membranes (CO2 opposite)
A
hemoglobin
interstitial fluid
14
Q
Bulk flow of CO2: CO2 mainly transported as ____ ions in plasma, liquid portion of blood. Produced by ____ in RBCs. CO2
can also directly mix with ____ (as CO2 gas), or bind ____ inside RBCs
A
HCO3-
carbonic anhydrase
plasma
hemoglobin
15
Q
Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs:
a. Inhalation – ____ (under lungs) and ____ (between ribs) contract/ flattens; increase in volume / decrease in ____ in lungs -> bulk flow of air into lungs.
b. Exhalation – ____ process; decrease in lung volume/ increase in air pressure -> air rushes out; diaphragm relaxes and ____
A
diaphragm
intercostal muscles
pressure
passive
expands
16
Q
Bohr effect – hemoglobin O2 ____ decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO2 & [H+]) -> oxygen loads released by hemoglobin
Decrease in ____ or ____ in pH will result in hemoglobin binding more O2
Result of: CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -. H+ + HCO3-
A
binding affinity
CO2
increase
17
Q
____ - Basically explains CO2’s dissociation curve. ↑ CO2 pressure = ↑ CO2 content in blood. But when hemoglobin is saturated by oxygen, its capacity to hold CO2
is ____. Essentially: we pick up CO2 in the tissues where it’s been generated, and get rid of it at the lungs and grab oxygen instead. Hemoglobin w/out oxygen acts as
____ by accepting H+ -> this reduced hemoglobin has higher capacity to form ____ rather than the oxygen carrying kind, explaining how the
Haldane effect occurs.
A
haldane effect
reduced
blood buffer
carbamino hemoglobin
18
Q
*Oxygen diffuses from ____ into ____, CO2 diffuses from ____ into ____
A
alveolar air
blood
blood
lungs
19
Q
Human respiration controlled by ____ – signals the diaphragm to ____
- When ppCO2 increases, medulla stimulates ____ in rate of ventilation
- The diaphragm is a ____ muscle innervated by the ____. It is also the only organ which only and all ____ have, and
without which no mammals can live.
A
medulla oblongata
contract
increases
skeletal
phrenic nerve
mammals
20
Q
Critical note: the majority of CO2 in the blood is transported in the form of the ____ (HCO3-). To a lesser extent, it can be transported bound to ____, and to an even lesser extent simply dissolved in the ____ (CO2 is ____ in blood than O2)
A
bicarbonate ion
hemoglobin/plasma proteins
plasma
significantly more
21
Q
Bigger picture: tissues are high CO2 and high H+, and they’re not getting a lot of oxygen, we want to oxygenate them. So Hb (Hemoglobin) once near the tissues is exposed to the higher CO2/H+, and ____ to ____ form: this ____ form now releases its O2 to the tissues, and will also more preferably bind ____
A
changes structure
reduced
reduced
CO2
22
Q
At the lungs, the CO2 wants out and is released. The H+ cxn is also lower due to bicarbonate being converted back into CO2 form for release. Now hemoglobin will change to its ____ that preferably binds ____, which it holds more tightly under these conditions.
A
non-reduced state
oxygen
23
Q
Control of respiration: central chemoreceptors in the ____ monitors ____ in the cerebrospinal fluid (though not directly) and peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid arties and aorta monitor aterial ____, ____, and ____. In an active body, there is increased CO2 production; it enters plasma is converted to HCO3- and H+, the blood pH drops -> respiratory rate ____. Oxygen and pH mainly monitored by the ____
A
medulla [H+] [H+] [CO2] [O2] increases peripheral chemoreceptors
24
Q
As O2 pressure increases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin ____
- This is ideal – in the lungs we are O2 rich and want to hang on to it, but in the tissues we are O2 poor (lower O2 pressure) so the hemoglobin will release the O2 to the tissues
A
increases
25
O2 saturation of hemoglobin also depends on CO2 pressure, pH, temp of blood
- Oxygen dissociation curve shows the percentage of hemoglobin bound w/ O2 at various ____ of O2
```
- Curve is shifted right (i.e. oxygen is released easier, low O2 affinity) by an increase of CO2 pressure, H+ cxn,
or temp (and vice versa) (CADET face Right! – CO2, Acid, 2,3-DPG, Exercise, and Temperature)
```
- Bohr effect – hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of ____ (high CO2 & [H+]) -> oxygen loads ____ by
hemoglobin because both O2 and H+ compete for binding at hemoglobin molecule
- 2,3-DPG cxn increase also shifts ____: it’s produced in presence of ____ peripheral tissue O2 capacity
```
partial pressures
low pH
released
right
diminished
```
26
____ comes from inadequate ventilation: we don’t clear enough CO2 and it builds up, so via rxn above more H+ ends up getting formed -> pH ____ in tissues.
____ comes from breathing too rapidly: we are losing CO2 too quickly, via rxn above, H+ and HCO3- start combining to form more CO2, pH ____.
Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are not due to breathing issues – you may alter breathing to compensate, but the cause is not ____.
respiratory acidosis
drops
respiratory alkalosis
rises
27
Chloride shift: carbonic anhydrase is in RBC’s so at the tissues to balance bicarbonate ions diffusing out of cells (because CO2 enters RBC, carbonic anhydrase converts, bicarbonate diffuses out to plasma) (vice versa at lungs), Cl- enters
- CO2 carried in blood in three forms: in ____, as ____, and in ____ (combined w/ hemoglobin and other proteins). Majority carried as bicarbonate ion form.
physical solution
bicarbonate ion
carbamino compounds
28
Myoglobin of muscle has ____ curve (structure doesn’t do ____ cooperative binding, single subunit) saturates quickly and releases in very low oxygen “____” situations
hyperbolic
allosteric
emergency muscle
29
o Fetal hemoglobin curve is shifted ____ of adult – has higher ____ to grab O2 from maternal blood
left
| binding affinity
30
Note: carbon monoxide has a ____hemoglobin than oxygen does! Have to administer pure O2 to ____ it once bound.
200x greater affinity
| displace
31
Avian respiration is drastically ____ than human respiration. Due to the unique anatomy of birds, respiration is both ____ and ____. ____ allow birds to exchange gas during both inhalation and exhalation – oxygen rich incoming air is first stored in ____ before entering lungs for exhalation, so it is not mixed with the ____ air.
```
different
continuous
unidirectional
air sacs
air sacs
deoxygenated exhaled
```
32
In mammalian respiration there is ____ - we breathe in and out through the same tubing, inhibiting ____ during exhalation. Deoxygenated air is mixed with some ____ during inhalation, some of it is re-breathed. Much ____ than birds.
tidal breathing
gas exchange
fresh air
less efficient
33
CIRC. SYSTEM
Protozoans (unicellular animal-like [due to movement] protists)- movement of gas through ____ within cell
simple diffusion
34
CIRC SYSTEM
Cnidarians – body walls ____ cells thick, therefore all cells in ____ with either internal or external environment. Ex- hydra
2
| direct contact
35
CIRC SYSTEM
Arthropods- most insects and molluscs
o ____- pump blood into internal cavity called ____ (cavities called ____), which bathe tissues in oxygen and nutrient containing fluid (____). This fluid returns to pumping mechanism (____) through holes called ____.
```
open circulatory system
hemocoel
sinuses
hemolymph
heart
ostia
```
36
CIRC SYSTEM
Annelids- earthworm
o ____- blood is confined to vessels.
- Also seen in certain ____ (octopus and squid) and ____
- Away from heart: aorta -> arteries -> ____ -> capillaries
- Back to heart: capillaries -> ____ -> veins
```
closed circulatory system
mollusks
vertebrates
arterioles
venules
```
37
CIRC SYSTEM
Note: human and bird hearts have ____ , reptiles+amphibians ____, fish ____ (but crocs+gators have ____ chambers)
4 chambers
3
2
4
38
CIRC SYSTEM
Human heart – (note: the ____ are the upper chambers of the heart) (animation of circuit flow)

o Right atrium – ____ blood enters via ____ and ____
o Right ventricle – blood is squeezed through right ____ into right ventricle which contracts and
pumps blood into ____ through the ____.
- When the ventricle contracts, AV valve closes to prevent ____
- When ventricle relaxes, ____ prevents backflow from pulmonary artery back into ventricles
atrium
deoxygenated
superior
inferior vena cava
AV/tricuspid valve
pulmonary artery
pulmonary semilunar valve
backflow
semilunar valve
39
CIRC SYSTEM
CONTINUING HUMAN HEART
Pulmonary circuit: blood pathway from ____ of heart to ____ to ____ of heart
- Blood flows from pulmonary artery -> ____ -> capillaries of the lungs -> collects in ____ -> ____
-> pulmonary veins -> left ____
o ____ is the circulation pathway through the body between left and right sides of heart
o Left atrium – after lungs the ____ blood enters left atrium via ____
right side
lungs
left side
arterioles
venules
veins
atrium
systemic circulation
oxygenated
pulmonary veins
40
CIRC SYSTEM
CONTINUING HUMAN HEART
Left ventricle – after going through left ____(aka mitral or bicuspid), blood from left ventricle goes to ____
through the ____ into rest of body:
- Aorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> tissues get what they want -> venules -> veins -> ____ -> cycle repeats
- As above: ____ prevents backlow into atrium, ____ prevents it into ventricle
o So: ____ and ____prevent backflow
AV valve
aorta
aortic semilunar valve
superior and inferior vena cava
AV valves
aortic semilunar valve
right/left AV
pulmonary/aortic SL
41
CIRC SYSTEM
Cardiac Cycle – regulated (in terms of rate)by autorhythmic cells of the autonomic NS, but contractions are intiated
____ of the autonomic NS. Instead the heart contracts automatically:
independently
42
CIRC SYSTEM
CARDIAC CYCLE
SA (sinoatrial) node, or ____ (located in upper wall of right ____) is a group of specialized cardiac muscle
cells that initiates by contracting ____ atria and sending delayed impulse to stimulate ____.
- Spreads contraction to surrounding cardiac muscles via ____ synapses made from ____
- Pace of SA node is ____ than normal heartbeat but ____ innervates SA node
(also increases digestive activity of intestines); ____ contractions
pacemaker
atrium
both
AV (atrioventricular) node
electrical
gap junctions
faster
parasympathetic vagus nerve
slows
43
CIRC SYSTEM
CARDIAC CYCLE
o AV node – located in lower wall of the right ____; sends impulse through ____ ->
passes between both ventricles -> branches into ventricles via the ____ which results in ____
atrium/interatrial septa
bundle of His
purkinje fibers
contraction
44
CIRC SYSTEM
CARDIAC CYCLE
When the ventricles contract (____ phase), blood is forced through pulmonary arteries and aorta
– When they relax (____ phase), backflow into ventricles causes ____ to close.
- ____: Heart Rate * Stroke Volume. The volume of blood pumped by the ventricle (per min)
- ____: number of beats per minute
```
- ____ = EDV - ESV. Volume of blood pumped out of the heart with each beat. Formula subtracts
the End-systolic Volume (blood in the ventricle at the end of the contraction/systole) from the End-
diastolic Volume (volume of blood in the ventricle just before contraction)
```
systole
diastole
semilunar valve
cardiac outpout
heart rate
stroke volume
45
CIRC SYSTEM
Heart contraction: heart is a large muscle, but unlike ____, not anchored to ____. Its fibers form a net and the net contracts upon itself, which squeezes blood into arteries.
skeletal
| bone
46
CIRC SYSTEM
____: occurs when ventricles contract. ____: occurs during relaxation of the entire heart and then contraction of the ____.
systole
diastole
47
CIRC SYSTEM
____ from heart contracting causes blood to move through arteries. Blood pressure drops as it reaches the ____, and reaches near zero in the ____. Blood continues to move through veins because of pumping of the heart assisted by movements of adjacent ____, expansion of atria each time heart beats, and falling pressure in chest when a person breathes.____ in the veins prevent backflow.
```
hydrostatic pressure
capillaries
venules
skeletal muscles
valves
```
48
CIRC SYSTEM
Blood Vessels: (arteries, veins, and capillaries)
o Arteries: thick-walled, muscular, ____, pump oxygenated away (except for pulmonary arteries that transport deoxygenated blood from heart
to lungs). Wrapped in ____ typically innervated by ____
o Arterioles: Very small, wrapped in ____, constrict/dilate to ____ and reroute blood – major determinant of ____
o Capillaries: have smallest diameter- single layer of ____ across which gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and waste ____
- 4 methods for material to cross capillary wall: ____, diffusion through ____, movement through pores in the cells (____), movement through space between the cells
o Venules: Small blood vessels that lead back to veins; very thin and ____; drain blood from capillary bed -> venules combine -> veins
o Veins: Larger veins often have ____ to aid in transport of deoxygenated blood back to heart due to fighting gravity (except for pulmonary
veins and umbilical vein that carry oxygenated blood)
elastic
smooth muscle
sympathetic NS
smooth muscle
regulated BP
pressure
```
endothelial cells
diffuse
pinocytosis
capillary cell membrane
fenestrations
```
porous
valves
49
CIRC SYSTEM
Lymph Vessels
o Lymphatic system is an open ____ system- transports excess ____ through the contraction of adjacent
muscles & some walls of larger lymph vessels have ____
o Proteins & large particles that can’t be taken up by ____ removed to lymph; also monitors blood for infxn
o Valves prevent backflow- fluid returns to ____ through two ducts located in ____ (thoracic&right lymphatic duct)
o Lymph nodes contain ____ (leukocytes) that filter the lymph and serve as immune response centers
secondary circulatory
interstitial fluid (lymph)
smooth muscle
capillaries
blood circulatory system
shoulder region
phagocytes
50
CIRC SYSTEM
Blood – 4-6 liters in the human body; is a connective tissue
o 55% liquid (____) and 45% cellular components – plasma is an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, gases, wastes, hormones, and blood proteins (immunoglobulins, albumin, fibrinogen, clotting factors)
- Cellular components
- - Erythrocytes (RBCs) – transport O2 (up to 4) on hemoglobin, catalyze conversion of CO2 and H2O to H2CO3 – ____ to maximize hemoglobin content
- - Leukocytes (WBCs) – larger and phagocytize foreign matter and organisms
- -- ____ – the process by which WBCs become part of the interstitial fluid (slip through the endothelial lining)
- -Platelets/thrombocytes- cell fragments involved in blood clotting – lack nuclei; stick to damaged epithelium; attract more
- -- Convert ____ (inactive) to ____ (active)
- -- Derived from ____
plasma
lack nucleus/organelles
diapedesis
fibrinogen
fibrin
megakaryocytes
51
CIRC SYSTEM
Process of blood clotting
1. Platelets contact exposed collagen of damaged vessel and cause neighboring platelets to form ____
2. Both the platelets and damaged tissue release clotting factor, ____
3. Thromboplastin converts inactive plasma protein ____ to ____ (active)
4. Thrombin converts ____ into ____
5. ____ threads coat damaged area and trap blood cells to form a clot
platelet plug
thromboplastin
prothombrin
thrombin
fibrinogen
fibrin
fibrin
52
CIRC SYSTEM
Myoglobin curve = ____, Hemoglobin curve = ____. Myoglobin has higher affinity for ____ than hemoglobin. Myoglobin has no change in O2 binding over a ____.
hyperbolic
sigmoidal
O2
pH range
53
CIRC SYSTEM
Hemoglobin – binds CO w/ much ____ than myoglobin (it also has 4 subunits vs 1)
Myoglobin = single chain/protein subunit, stores O2 in muscle
greater affinity
54
CIRC SYSTEM
Fetal circulation: oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from placenta carried to fetus via ____ -> half enters ____ (allows blood to bypass the liver) -> carried to inferior vena cava -> RA -> RV -> ____ (conducts some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta [bypassing the lungs/fetal pulmonary circulation]) -> aorta.
Other half enters liver/portal vein -> RA -> ____ (allows blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria since there is no gas exchange in fetal lung) -> LA -> LV -> aorta.
umbilical vein
ductus venosus
ductus arteriosus
foramen ovale
55
CIRC SYSTEM
____ = SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)
- Stroke volume = volume of blood discharged from the ____ with each contraction.
- Cardiac output = volume discharged from ventricle each minute.
- Stroke volume = ____ – ____.
cardiac output (CO)
ventricles
end systolic volume
end diastolic volume
56
CIRC SYSTEM
____ = another blood antigen; mother might attack Rh+ in 2nd fetus (____) (first child is fine but during 1st childbirth blood exposure -> antibodies to Rh attack 2nd)
Rh factor
| erythblastosis fetalis
57
CIRC SYSTEM
Double capillary beds (portal system) occur in ____, capillaries that surround ____, small intestine, liver, and ____ and anterior pituitary gland. Capillary bed pools into another capillary bed (capillary bed 1 -> drains into portal vein -> capillary bed 2 -> drains into vein that returns blood to heart) w/out first going to heart (transport products in ____ without spreading to rest of body)
glomerulus
loop of henle
hypothalamus
high concentration
58
CIRC SYSTEM
Phosphate buffer system – maintains pH of ____ of all cells; H2PO4- and HPO42- act as acid & base (____)
internal fluids
| amphoteric
59
EXCRE SYSTEM
1. Osmoregulation:
a. Marine fish: body is hypotonic to environment -> water is constantly ____ by osmosis, constant ____, rarely ____, and secrete accumulated ____ through gills.
b. Fresh water fish: body is hypertonic to environment; water moves in => rarely ____, constantly ____, and
absorb ____ through gills.
lost
drinking
urinate
salt
drink
urinate
salt
60
EXC SYSTEM
Protozoans and Cnidarians – all ____ in contact with external, aqueous environment
- Water soluble wastes (ammonia, CO2) exit by ____
- Protists such as Paramecium and aoebas – possesses ____ for XS H2O excretion by ____ transport
cells
simple diffusion
contractile vacuoles
active transport
61
EXC SYSTEM
Annelids – CO2 excretion directly through ____
- ____ (metanephridia) occur in pairs within each segment of annelids (earthworms). Interstitial fluids enter a nephridium through ciliated opening
____ and concentrate through ____ due to selective secretion into surrounding coelomic fluid. Blood that surrounds tubule reabsorb.
Water, salts, urea are excreted through ____.
```
moist skin
nephridia
nephrostome
collecting tubule
excretory pore
```
62
EXC SYSTEM
Platyhelminthes – flame cells (____) – distributed along branched tube system that permeates the flatworm
- Body fluids filtered across flame cells, whose cilia move fluids through tube system; wastes exit through pores of tube
protonephridia
63
EXC SYSTEM
Arthropods – CO2 released from tissues -> ____ (which are continue with ext. air thru ____)
- ____: occurs in arthropods (terrestrial insects). Tubes attached to mid digestive tract (midgut) collect
body fluids from ____ that bath the cells; fluids are deposited into midgut. Fluids include ____ (in form of uric acid crystals; H2O, salt retained. As fluid passes through hindgut, retained materials pass out of walls and wastes continue down the tract for excretion through ____.
```
tracheae
spiracles
malphigian tubules
hemolymph
nitrogenous wastes
anus
```
64
EXC SYSTEM
Excretion in Humans – lungs, liver, skin, and kidney
- Lungs – ____ and ____ diffuse from blood and are continually exhaled
- Liver – processes ____, blood pigment wastes, other chemicals, ____ prod.
- Skin – sweat glands in skin excrete water and dissolved salts/regulate body temp (sweat gland fxn decreases as we age)
- Kidney – Three regions: 1) ____, 2) ____, and 3) ____ which drains to ____. Each has many nephrons. Kidneys -> ureter -> ____ ->
urethra. Functions to excrete waste, maintain ____ of body fluid volume and solute composition, and help control ____
CO2
H2O(g)
nitrogenous wastes
UREA
```
outer cortex
inner medulla
renal pelvis
ureter
bladder
homeostasis
plasma pH
```
65
EXC SYSTEM
Nephrons – composed of ____ and ____; reabsorbs nutrients, salts, and water
renal corpuscle
| renal tubule
66
EXC SYSTEM
NEPHRONS
Renal corpuscle – glomerulus (sieve) surrounded by ____; ____ arteriole=into glomerulus; ____ arteriole=out of glomerulus
o After efferent arteriole passes back out of the glomerulus is just webs around the entire ____ (see above) as the peritubular capillaries (surround PCT and DCT; reabsorb stuff) and vena cava (surround LOH in medulla, maintain cxn gradient) before dumping back in to the ____ of renal vein. Meanwhile, Bowman’s capsule leads to...
bowman's capsule
afferent
efferent
nephron structure
renal branch
67
EXC SYSTEM
NEPHRONS
RENAL TUBULE
(1) o ____ – active ____ of glucose, ions, amino acids begins (water follows ->
cortex not ____)
-- Drugs, toxins, etc secreted into ____; H+ ions secreted in as well via antiport with Na+
proximal convoluted tubule
reabsorption
salty
filtrate
68
EXC SYSTEM
NEPHRONS
RENAL TUBULE
(2) Loop of Henle (____)
- DESCENDING – only permeable to ____ (but this ____ is picked up by vasa recta -> medulla stays
____)
- ASCENDING makes renal medulla ____–actively pumps out Na+,K+,Cl- ; impermeable to ____!
- This process allows reabsorption of 99% of filtrate -> conc. ____
majority of nephron
water
water
salty
salty
water
urine
69
EXC SYSTEM
NEPHRONS
RENAL TUBULE
(3) Distal convoluted tubule – more ____ of glucose, ions, water, etc (cortex not ____). Filtrate: Na+ and Ca2+ get ____ into body, K+/H+/HCO3- ____ via tubule. Distal tubule empties to...
reabsorption
salty
reabsorbed
secreted out
70
EXC SYSTEM
NEPHRONS
RENAL TUBULE
(4) Collecting duct – collects remaining filtrate. Is ordinarily ____ to water unless ____ acts on it
- Descends to medulla (salty part), where ____ hormones (____) can make MORE
____ leave from urine by increasing permeability of collecting duct -> urine even more
____. 1 CD shared by many ____
- Also, ____ acts on DCT and CD: increase Na+ resorbtion, K+ secretion -> water passively
follows Na+
impermeable
ADH
```
antidiuretic
ADH/vasopressin
water
concentration
nephrons
```
aldosterone
71
EXC SYSTEM
URINE FORMATION
(1) Filtration – The fluid that goes through ____ (afferent arteriole => glomerulus => efferent) to the rest of the nephron is called ____; particles that are too large to filter through (blood and albumin) remain in ____; passive process; driven by ____ of blood. So Glomerulus -> filtrate pushed into ____.
```
glomerulus
filtrate
circulatory system
hydrostatic pressure of blood
bowman's capsule
```
72
EXC SYSTEM
URINE FORMATION
(2) Secretion – substances such as acids, bases, and ions (K+) are secreted by both ____; secreted from ____
passive/active transport
| peritubular capillaries
73
EXC SYSTEM
URINE FORMATION
(3) Reabsorption – glucose, salts, AA, and water are ____ from filtrate & return to blood; takes place namely in ____
reabsorbed
| proximal convoluted tubule (active)
74
EXC SYSTEM
URINE FORMATION
(4) Concentration – when dehydrated volume of fluid in bloodstream is low so you need to make small amounts of concentrated urine => ____ prevents water loss by making distal tubule ____ to water /// when Blood Pressure is low => ____ increases reabsorption of Na+ by ____ which increases ____ (serum [Na+] increases BP)
ADH
permeable
aldosterone
distal nephron
water retention
75
EXC SYSTEM
filtration occurs in ____ -> reabsorption/secretion mostly in ____ -> filtrate becomes more cxn as it moves ____ loop of Henle (water passive out of tube) -> more dilute as it moves up ____ (passive and active transport of salts out, but not water) -> DCT dumps into ____ -> filtrate more cxn again as it descends collecting duct (because surrounding medulla is ____, water leaves) -> CD leads to ____ -> empties into ____ -> drains to ureter. Keep in mind ____ means back into the body
```
renal corpuscle
proximal tubule
down
loop
collecting duct
salty
renal calyx
renal pelvis
reabsorb
```
76
EXC SYSTEM
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus: monitors ____ pressure in DT via ____ -> secrete ____ -> angiotensin cascade -> tells ____ to make aldost
filtrate pressure
granular cells
renin
adrenal cortex
77
EXC SYSTEM
** Selective permeability of the tubules establishes an ____ in the surrounding ____
osmolarity gradient
| interstitial fluid
78
EXC SYSTEM
*** Urine is ____ to the blood and contains a ____ urea and solute concentration.
hypertonic
| high
79
EXC SYSTEM
Osmolarity Gradient – created by exiting / entering of solutes; ____ from cortex to medulla
increases
80
EXC SYSTEM
____ - descending loop permeable to water & ascending is permeable to salts / ions; this makes the medulla ____ and ____ water reabsorption
counter current multiplier
very salty
facilitates
81
EXC SYSTEM
Nitrogen as a waste product: Aquatic animals excrete ____ or ____ directly into ____ , mammals convert NH3 to ____ ,
Birds/insects/reptiles convert urea to ____ (____ in water, water conservation, excreted as ____ )
```
NH3
NH4
water
urea
uric acid
insoluble
solid
```
82
EXC SYSTEM
____ = special sac in bird egg that keeps N waste away from embryo
allantois
83
EXC SYSTEM
Excretion in Plants – excess CO2, waste O2, and H2O (g), leave by diffusion through ____ and ____ -> This process is called ____
stomata
lenticels
transpiration
84
DIG SYSTEM
UNICELLULAR
- Amoeba
o Food capture: ____ -> food ____
o Food ____ fuse with ____
- Paramecium
o ____ sweep food into ____
o Food vacuole forms and moves toward anterior end of cell
phagocytosis
vacuole
vacuole
lysosome
cilia
cytopharynx
85
DIG SYSTEM
INVERTEBRATES
- ____ – cutting and grinding in mouth; churning in digestive tract
- ____ – enzymatic hydrolysis -> smaller nutrients -> pass through semi-permeable membrane of gut cells to be further metabolized
-Cnidarians
o Hydra- ____ and ____ digestion
```
-Annelids
o Earthworms – ____ digestive tract
-- ____ – food storage
-- ____ – grind food
-- Intestine – contains ____ to increase surface area for absorption
```
- Arthropods
o Also have jaws for chewing and ____
physical breakdown
chemical breakdown
intracellular
extracellular
one-way
crop
gizzard
typholosole
salivary glands
86
DIG SYSTEM
```
Digestion in Humans
Four groups of molecules encountered
1. ____ -> glucose
2. ____ -> amino acids
3. ____ -> fatty acids
4. ____ -> nucleotides
```
starches
proteins
fats
nucleic acids
87
DIG SYSTEM
1. Mouth - ____ breaks down (starch -> maltose), chewing creates ____ which is swallowed
salivary a-amylase
| bolus
88
DIG SYSTEM
2. Pharynx (____) – this is where food and air passages ____; the ____, flap of tissue, blocks trachea so only solid and liquid enter...
throat
cross
epiglottis
89
DIG SYSTEM
3. Esophagus – tube leading to stomach, food travels by contractions (____),
peristalsis
90
DIG SYSTEM
4. Stomach – secretes ____ (digestive enzymes and HCl) – food enters stomach through ____. The
stomach contains ____ glands (local secretion by way of duct) within gastric pits (indentations in stomach that denote entrance to the
gastric glands, which contain ____, parietal cells, and mucous cells (secrete mucus to ____)
```
gastric juice
lower esophageal/cardiac sphincter
exocrine
secreting chief cells
prevent backwash
```
91
DIG SYSTEM
STOMACH
a. Storage – ____ folds allow 2-4 liters of storage
accordian-like
92
DIG SYSTEM
STOMACH
b. Mixing – mixes food w/ H2O and gastric juice -> ____ (creamy medium)
c. Physical breakdown – ____ break food; ____ denatures proteins & kills bacteria
chyme
muscles
HCl
93
DIG SYSTEM
STOMACH
d. Chemical breakdown – ____ (secreted by ____) digests proteins; (pepsinogen activated by ____, which is secreted by
____)
i. ____ – caused by failure of mucosal lining to protect stomach
– Ulcers can be caused by excess stomach acid or ____ as well
pepsin
chief cells
HCl
parietal cells
peptic ulcers
H.pylori
94
DIG SYSTEM
STOMACH
e. Controlled release – chyme -> small intestine; controlled by ____
pyloric sphincter
95
DIG SYSTEM
STOMACH
f. Stomach cells
i. ____ – secrete mucus that lubricates & protects stomach’s epithelial lining from acid environment
ii. ____ – ex.gl. secrete pepsinogen (zymoegn precursor to ____).
– Pepsinogen activated to pepsin by ____ in stomach; once active begins ____
iii. ____ – Secrete HCl; intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
iv. ____ – secrete gastrin, a large peptide hormone which is absorbed into blood -> stims ____ to secrete HCl
v. Affected by: ____ increases secretion of all cell types, ____ and ____ increase HCl secretion
```
mucous cells
chief cells
pepsin
low pH
protein digestion
parietal cells
g cells
parietal cell
a-chol
gastrin
histamine
```
96
DIG SYSTEM
Small intestine – food goes from stomach to small intestine through the ____ - first 25cm (____), continues breakdown
of starches and proteins as well as remaining food types (fats and nucleotides); ____ between it and large intestine. Structure is duodenum (most ____), jejunum, then ileum (jej and il mostly ____). 90% of digestion and absorption occurs in ____; completes.
pyloric sphincter
duodenum
ileocecal valve
digestion
absorption
small intestine
97
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
a. Structure – Wall has finger-like projections called ____ that increase the surface area for greater digestion/absorption. Each villi has a ____ (lymph vessel surrounded by capillary network; both fxn for nutrient absorption). Villi have ____, more SA.
i. ____ secrete mucus to lubricate and protect from mech/chem damage
ii. Duodenum has a ph ~6 mainly due to ____ secreted by ____
villi
lacteal
microvilli
goblet cells
bicarbonate ions
pancreas
98
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
b. Enzyme origin
i. Small intestine – ____ enzymes: proteases, maltase and lactase, phosphatases/nucleosidases (nucleotides); lipase
proteolytic
99
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
c. Pancreas – secretes ____; also acts as ____ gland releasing major enzymes from ____ via pancreatic duct -> duodenum
- Trypsin & chymotrypsin (proteases), lipase, pancreatic amylase, deoxy&ribonucleases
- All exist as ____ first. Trypsin gets activated, then activates the other enzymes - These enzymes in alkaline solution (____ -> ____)
```
bicarbonate
exocrine
acinar cells
zymogens/proenzymes (inactive)
pancreatic duct
duodenum
```
100
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
d. Liver – produces ____ (no ____, emulsifies fats) stored in ____, flows thru bile duct which merges with ____
bile
enzymes
gall bladder
pancreatic duct
101
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
e. Remainder of small intestine (6m) absorbs breakdown products (____ and ____)
i. Amino acids and sugars -> ____ ; fatty acids and glycerol -> ____. System
villi
microvilli
capillaries
lymph
102
DIG SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
f. Chyme moves through intestines via ____ as well. ____ (2nd type of intestinal motion) mixes chime w/ dig. juices
peristalsis
| segmentation
103
DIG SYSTEM
6. Large intestine (colon) – reabsorption of water and salts to form ____; 1.5m long
a. Feces stored at end of L.I. in the ____ -> excreted through ____
b. At beginning is ____, which in herbivores is large ____ (cellulose ____) with the help of bacteria
c. Bacteria (e.g. E.Coli) a ____ in large intestine = main source of ____ (also Vitamin B)
```
feces
rectum
anus
appendix
cecum
digestion
symbiont
vitamin K
```
104
DIG SYSTEM
ECL cells are neuroendocrine cells in the digestive tract; ____ stimulates them to release ____ which in turn stimulates parietal cells to produce ____
gastrin
histamine
gastric acid
105
DIG SYSTEM
Hormones involved in the digestive process
1. Gastrin – produced by ____ when food reaches or upon sensing of food; more above
2. Secretin – produced by cells lining ____ when food enters; stimulates pancreas to produce ____ (____ the chime)
3. Cholecystokinin – produced by ____ in response to ____; stimulates gallbladder to release ____ and ____ to release its enzymes
4. Gastric Inhibitory Peptide – produced in response to ____ in duodenum; ____ of stomach motor activity
stomach lining
duodenum
bicarbonate
neutralizes
S.I.
fats
bile
pancreas
fat/protein digestates
mild decrease
106
DIG SYSTEM
Digestion in plants and fungi
***Plants have no ____, but intracellular processes similar to ____ do occur***
Intracellular digestion – store primarily ____ in seeds, stems, and roots; when nutrients are required, polymers are broken down (into glucose, fatty acid, glycerol, and amino acids) by enzymatic ____
Extracellular digestion – several plants must obtain nutrient from environment
- Fungi – ____ of bread mold, secrete enzymes into bread, producing simple digestive products which are then absorbed by ____ into rhizoid
- Venus flytrap – enzymes digest trapped fly (serves as ____ source); ***still ____**
digestive system
animals
starch
hydrolysis
rhizoids
diffusion
nitrate
autotrophic
107
DIG SYSTEM
LIVER FXNS
- Blood ____
- Blood Filtration – ____ phagocytize bacteria picked up in intestines
- Carbohydrate Metabolism – Liver maintains normal blood glucose levels via ____ (production of glycogen and glucose from
noncarb precursors), ____, and storage of glycogen
-- All carbs absorbed into blood are carried by ____ to the liver. Absorbed gal and fru converted to glu, then stored as ____.
storage
kupfer cells
gluconeogenesis
glycogenesis
portal vein
glycogen
108
DIG SYSTEM
LIVER FXNS
- Protein metabolism – Liver ____ AA’s, forms ____ from ammonia in blood, synths plasma proteins, synths nonessential AAs
- - Detoxification – Detox’d chemicals, excreted by liver as part of ____ (or polarized to be excreted by ____)
- Erythrocyte destruction – ____ destroy irregular erythrocytes (but most are destroyed by ____)
- Vitamin Storage – Stores ____. Also stores ____ by combining it with apoferritin -> ____
deaminates
urea
bile
kidneys
kupfer cells
spleen
vita A, D, B12
iron
ferritin
109
DIG SYSTEM
LIVER FXNS
- All carbs absorbed into blood are carried by ____ to the liver
- Glycogenesis (formation of ____) and ____ (if blood glucose levels ____ -> glycogen broken down to glu for release)
- When liver mobilizes fat or protein for energy, blood acidity ____ (____ are produced -> ketosis/acidosis results)
- Blood supply: hepatic portal vein supplies blood as does ____ (oxygenates liver); blood leaves via ____ -> ____
- Digestive (produces ____); Transport (synthesizes ____ proteins important in ____)
portal vein
glycogen
glycogenolysis
decrease
increases
ketone bodies
hepatic artery
hepatic vein
vena cava
bile
blood plasma
clotting
