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Attention > CH8 > Flashcards

CH8 Flashcards

1
Q

Vigilance decrement:

A

the decrease in the attention of infrequent target stimuli over the first half-hour of performance.

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2
Q

Automation:

A

educes the attentional and cognitive demands

placed on the operator, adapt to behaviors of specific users.

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3
Q

Mode error:

A

mistakenly enter information thinking that one mode is in effect when another really is. Operators may be ‘out of the loop’.

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4
Q

One concern for the study of attention is

A

automation. A benefit is that it reduces the
attentional and cognitive demands placed on the operator by allowing problems to be
detected without requiring operator intervention. Another benefit is that systems can be
programmed to adapt to the behaviours of specific users. Drawback: mode error, in which
the interface has several modes for information entry and the operator mistakenly enters the
information thinking that one mode is in effect when really another is. An over-reliance on
automation may lead operators to fail to detect problems.

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5
Q

Pursuit eye movements are

A

important in tasks that require following a

moving “track”.

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6
Q

Grouping principles can be done with

A

the Gestalt principles:

  • Proximity: components in close spatial proximity tend to be grouped together
  • Similarity: components that are similar in appearance tend to be grouped together
  • Continuity: components that follow a continuous contour tend to be grouped together
  • Closure: gaps between contours tend to be filled in
  • Common fate: components that move in the same direction or at the same speed will
    tend to be grouped together

Displays should be organised in a consistent manner in order to minimise the amount of
attention that needs to be allocated to searching for the information. Also, they should be
organised to minimise clutter.

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7
Q

the Gestalt principles:

A
  • Proximity: components in close spatial proximity tend to be grouped together
  • Similarity: components that are similar in appearance tend to be grouped together
  • Continuity: components that follow a continuous contour tend to be grouped together
  • Closure: gaps between contours tend to be filled in
  • Common fate: components that move in the same direction or at the same speed will
    tend to be grouped together
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8
Q
  • Proximity:
A

components in close spatial proximity tend to be grouped together

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9
Q
  • Similarity:
A

components that are similar in appearance tend to be grouped together

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10
Q
  • Continuity
A

components that follow a continuous contour tend to be grouped together

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11
Q
  • Closure:
A

gaps between contours tend to be filled in

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12
Q
  • Common fate:
A

components that move in the same direction or at the same speed will
tend to be grouped together

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13
Q

Object displays are

A

multidimensional displays that can be perceived and monitored as a single object.

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14
Q

Identity matching

A

know exactly what option to

search for.

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15
Q

Equivalence search

A

know what option, but not how it is labeled.

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16
Q

Inclusion matching

A 
can be used to find an option that is classified within a menu when the user does not
know under which class a specific option would be categorised.
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17
Q

Smart menus

A

only

display the commands that have been used frequently or recently.

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18
Q

breadth versus

depth trade-off.

A

You can either
have a broad design: few menus with many commands, or a deep design: many
menus with fewer commands under each one.
Deep is preferred

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19
Q

multifunctional

displays consist of

A

multiple display options mapped to a limited number of keys. Two
steps are involved in creating an optimal mapping of hierarchy labels to buttons: (1)
development of a quantitative model of the time needed to search through the
hierarchy, and (2) application of an optimization algorithm to determine the best
mapping according to the model.

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20
Q

Gaze-contingent multiresolutional displays:

A

high-
resolution part with low-resolution remainder, that dynamically changes as the observer moves their eyes so that the area that the eyes see always is high-res

multiple display options mapped to a limited number of keys. Optimal
mapping: quantitative model of time needed to search, optimization algorithm.

limited region of high resolution, area always corresponds to part of the
image falling on or around the fovea.

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21
Q

There are two types of proximity:

A

perceptual proximity

Processing proximity

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22
Q

perceptual proximity

A

refers of the perceptual
similarity that exists between different components of the display. This includes spatial,
chromatic (colour), form, measurement, and code (analog or digital). Spatial proximity refers
to the distance between the items of the displays.

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23
Q

Spatial proximity

A

refers

to the distance between the items of the displays.

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24
Q

Processing proximity

A

is how much
attention must be focused on the different components of a display in order to obtain the
information necessary to complete a task.

This can be characterised by three different
categories: integrative processing (active integration of the components through
computational integration), non-integrative processing (similarity among the components of
the display), and independent processing (doesn’t require processing of components
together bc separate decisions are made for each display component).

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25
Q

integrative processing

A

active integration of the components through

computational integration

26
Q

non-integrative processing

A

similarity among the components of

the display

27
Q

independent processing

A

doesn’t require processing of components

together bc separate decisions are made for each display component

28
Q

An emergent display

A

reduces the attentional demands that a user must devote to a multi-element display because the operator can monitor the global property rather than the individual components

Emergent displays are integral and configural displays, comparable to separable displays

29
Q

Woods distinguished between

A

displays that are designed for information availability and

those designed for information extraction, such as those with emergent features.

30
Q

Emergent

displays can be classified into

A

integral and configural displays, and these displays are often
compared to separable displays. Separable displays allow each component to maintain its
unique properties so that it can be processed independently. In integral displays, emergent
properties of the components are so strong that the perceptual properties of the individual
components are not distinguishable.

31
Q

Benner and Flach say that

A

that the emergent features view provides a better account for
performance data than does the proximity compatibility principle, with the arguments:
- Performance for integrated tasks improves more as a function of the presence of
emergent features than of the use of object displays
- The tradeoff in performance between tasks and displays that is predicted by the
proximity compatibility principle is not always found

32
Q

Salience of display and control features:

A

The salience of the display components contributes to the effectiveness of a display at conveying information. The operator focuses most attention on his own central visual area, so that is where the most important information should be. Performance is best when the stimulus-response configurations are mapped
compatibly, so when the button for the left stove is on the left.

33
Q

Auditory displays are

A

more effective when the lighting is poor. Also, auditory displays
can be detected regardless of the operator’s orientation and they attract attention
more automatically. Drawbacks are that the operator must attend to the entire
message, and it tends to be lengthy.

34
Q

Auditory icons

A

are sound effects that map

everyday sounds to computer events.

35
Q

Earcons are

A

short, nonverbal audio messages
that convey information to the user regarding characteristics of objects or events in
the system.

short, nonverbal audio messages regarding characteristics of objects or events, different
combinations of sounds called motives.

36
Q

The auditory channel is ideal for

A

the use of warning and alerting signals, and the

intensity of the sound can be used to differentiate between levels of urgency

37
Q

Multisensory interfaces:

A

having operators monitor both auditory and visual
information at the same time has drawbacks: there is a cost associated with shifting
attention between visual and auditory modalities. Spence and Driver proposed a
“separable-but-linked” hypothesis to explain the crossmodal interactions. Although
people can direct auditory and visual attention to separate locations, it is best to
design displays that use attentional cues that are consistent across modalities.

38
Q

Crosstalk is

A

the influence of one stimulus dimension on another. There’s a distinction
between integral and separable dimensions. Integral is if classifications of one
dimension are hindered by variations in the other dimension. Dimensions sometimes
interact because of meaningful, learned relationships between them.

39
Q

Mental model:

A

representation of some aspect of the world that reflects the individual’s
understanding of it. So, they allow operators to use past experiences to simulate the
behaviour of the system of interest and make predictions about future events.

40
Q

The

principle of pictorial realism is

A

that the display should visually depict the item it is

supposed to represent.

41
Q

The principle of moving components refers to

A

the notion that
moving elements of a display should move in the direction that is consistent with the
user’s mental model.

42
Q

Ecological interface design

A

the idea that displays should not be arbitrary symbolic
representations but should impose lawful constraints that are representative of the
actual environment. It’s based on the abstraction hierarchy and the skill-rules-
knowledge behavioural taxonomy.

43
Q

The abstraction hierarchy

A

distinguishes five levels that can be characterised
in terms of lower-level physical information concerning the equipment,
its physical appearance,
and layout,
and higher-level functional information
concerning the purposes
and functions of the equipment.

44
Q

In the behavioural taxonomy,

A

the skill-based mode is relatively automatic
behaviour that occurs when the situation is a familiar one in which
overlearned procedures are usable.

45
Q

Behaviour is rule-based

A

when a rare

event occurs, but you can use a previously learned rule.

46
Q

Behaviour is

knowledge-based when

A

an event is unfamiliar and there is no rule so the user must use problem solving.

47
Q

Memory-related factors

A

there are three memory principles that should be incorporated into the design of displays.

  • The display should have an anticipatory property: they should make
    predictions for the operator on what to do.
  • The display should provide knowledge in the world, like explicit reminders that
    will minimise memory retrieval problems.
  • The display should be designed to be consistent with autonomic human
    action tendencies.
48
Q

Cognitive load and instructional learning

A

when a display does not provide a learner
with sufficient information, the learner must integrate instructional or textual
information with the displayed information to achieve this understanding. This
worsens performance because of split attention

49
Q

Cognitive load theory:

A

performance decreases when there is split attention because cognitive workload increases. You can reduce this by using auditory presentation for the textual material that needs to be integrated with the information in a diagram. It’s even better if the pieces of information to be integrated are located in close physical proximity, presented in distinct modalities, or colour-coded.

50
Q

Head-up displays (HUD)

A

superimpose a virtual image of the information display on thecentral area in which the outside world is viewed in order to place important display
information in close proximity.

Advantages:

  • They allow both the environment and the display to be monitored
    simultaneously.
  • The display can be aligned with its coutnerpart in the environment
  • The display can be collimated to appear at “optical infinity” to match the
    environment so that the lens of the eye does not have to refocus when
    switching focus between the environment and the display. However, it is
    possible that HUD will produce cognitive capture and actually make it difficult
    to shift attention to the environment.
  • Disadvantages:
  • they create clutter, they may not be seen against the
    environmental background, and they reduce visibility of environmental objects
    that are located behind them
51
Q

Advantages Head-up displays (HUD)

A
  • They allow both the environment and the display to be monitored
    simultaneously.
  • The display can be aligned with its coutnerpart in the environment
  • The display can be collimated to appear at “optical infinity” to match the
    environment so that the lens of the eye does not have to refocus when
    switching focus between the environment and the display. However, it is
    possible that HUD will produce cognitive capture and actually make it difficult
    to shift attention to the environment.
52
Q

Disadvantages Head-up displays (HUD)

A
  • they create clutter, they may not be seen against the environmental background, and they reduce visibility of environmental objects that are located behind them
53
Q

Virtual reality environments

A

manipulate sensory stimuli to provide the observer with

a sensation of interacting with the actual world

54
Q

Problems with automatisation

A

vigilance decrement aka the hit rate decreases as the time on
the task increases. It’s affected by three categories of factors: task parameters,
environmental or situational factors, and subject characteristics. Performance usually
declines less when the target event is salient than when it is not. Environmental factors
include auditory noise, heat, and vibration. The vigilance decrement might be due to
underarousal, but recent evidence has suggested the opposite: the information processing
required for vigilance tasks is highly demanding and the vigilance decrement is depletion of
information resources over the period of the vigil.

55
Q

vigilance decrement aka the hit rate decreases

A

as the time on
the task increases. It’s affected by three categories of factors: task parameters,
environmental or situational factors, and subject characteristics. Performance usually
declines less when the target event is salient than when it is not. Environmental factors
include auditory noise, heat, and vibration.

56
Q

Crosstalk

A

influence of one stimulus dimension on another

57
Q

Integral

dimension:

A

classifications of one dimension are hindered by variations in the other dimension,
difficult to selectively attend to either dimension.

58
Q

Separable dimension

A

variation on one dimension
will not be affected by the value on the other. Dimensions sometimes interact because of meaningful,
learned relationship. Redundancy gain depends on relation between the stimuli.

59
Q

Cognitive capture

A

difficult to shift attention to the environment. Salience, legibility and head-up
location may command too much of operator’s visual attention.

60
Q

Intelligent transport systems (ITS)

A

increase complexity and mental workload.

Attention (12 decks)

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