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Embryology > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The information is encoded in DNA in sequences called ____ that code for proteins

A

genes

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2
Q

Gene expression can be regulated at several levels:

A

(1)Different genes may be transcribed
(2)DNA transcribed from a gene may be selectively processed to regulate which RNAs reach the cytoplasm to become messenger RNAs (mRNAs)
(3)mRNAs may be selectively translated (4)proteins made from the mRNAs may be differentially modified.

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3
Q

Genes are contained in a complex of DNA and proteins (mostly histones) called ____

A

chromatin

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4
Q

Basic unit of structure is the _____

A

nucleosome

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5
Q

Each nucleosome is composed of an octamer of ______ and approximately 140 base pairs of DNA

A

histone proteins

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6
Q

Nucleosomes themselves are joined into clusters by binding of DNA existing between nucleosomes (______) with other histone proteins (H1 histones)

A

(linker DNA)

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7
Q

Inactive state: chromatin appears as beads of nucleosomes on a string of DNA and is referred to as ______

A

heterochromatin

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8
Q

For transcription to occur, this DNA must be uncoiled from the beads. Uncoiled state, chromatin is referred to as ____

A

euchromatin

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9
Q

Genes reside within the DNA strand and contain regions called ___, which can be translated into proteins

A

exons

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10
Q

_____, which are interspersed between exons and which are not transcribed into proteins

A

Introns

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11
Q

Exons and introns, a typical gene includes the following: a _______ that binds RNA polymerase for the initiation of transcription;

A

promoter region

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12
Q

Exons and introns, a typical gene includes the following: a promoter region that binds ____ of transcription;

A

RNA polymerase

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13
Q

Exons and introns, a typical gene includes the following: a promoter region that binds RNA polymerase for the initiation of ____

A

transcription

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14
Q

The promoter region, where the RNA polymerase binds, usually contains the sequence TATA, and this site is called the ____

A

TATA box

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15
Q

In order to bind to this site, however, the polymerase requires additional proteins called_____, also have a specific DNA-binding domain plus a transactivating domain that activates or inhibits transcription of the gene whose promoter or enhancer it has bound.

A

transcription factors

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16
Q

____ are regulatory elements of DNA that activate utilization of promoters to control their efficiency and the rate of transcription from the promoter.

A

Enhancers

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17
Q

The _____, which participates in pancreas, eye, and neural tube development, contains three separate enhancers, each of which regulates the gene’s expression in the appropriate tissue.

A

PAX6 transcription factor

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18
Q

Sometimes, enhancers can inhibit transcription and are called ____

A

silencers

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19
Q

____ of cytosine bases in the promoter regions of genes represses transcription of those genes.

A

Methylation

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20
Q

one of the X chromosomes in each cell of female is inactivated (_____) by this methylation mechanism.

A

X chromosome inactivation

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21
Q

_____ is also responsible for genomics imprinting in which only a gene inherited from the father or the mother is expressed, whereas the other gene is silenced.

A

DNA methylation

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22
Q

DNA methylation is also responsible for _____ in which only a gene inherited from the father or the mother is expressed, whereas the other gene is silenced

A

genomics imprinting

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23
Q

The initial transcript of a gene is called ___ or sometimes premessenger RNA.

A

nuclear RNA (nRNA)

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24
Q

The initial transcript of a gene is called nuclear RNA (nRNA) or sometimes _____

A

premessenger RNA

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25
Q

The process is carried out by _____, which are complexes of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins that recognize specific splice sites at the 5’ or the 3’ ends of the nRNA

A

spliceosomes

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26
Q

Proteins derived from the same gene are called splicing isoforms (also called _____ or ____), and these afford the opportunity for different cells to use the same gene to make proteins specific for that cell type

A

splice variants or alternative splice forms

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26
Q

Proteins derived from the same gene are called _____ (also called splice variants or alternative splice forms), and these afford the opportunity for different cells to use the same gene to make proteins specific for that cell type.

A

splicing isoforms

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27
Q

Most often, one group of cells or tissues causes another set of cells or tissues to change their fate, a process called _____

A

induction

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28
Q

Even after a protein is made (translated), there may be ______ that affect its function.

A

post translational modifications

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29
Q

In each such interaction, one cell type or tissue is the inducer that produces a signal, and one is the ____ to that signal

A

responder

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30
Q

In each such interaction, one cell type or tissue is the _____ that produces a signal, and one is the responder to that signal

A

inducer

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31
Q

The capacity to respond to such a signal is called competence, and competence requires activation of the responding tissue by a ____

A

competence factor

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31
Q

The capacity to respond to such a signal is called ____, and competence requires activation of the responding tissue by a competence factor

A

competence

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32
Q

Many inductive interactions occur between epithelial and mesenchymal cells and are called _____

A

epithelial—mesenchymal interactions

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33
Q

_____ are joined together in tubes or sheets, whereas mesenchymal cells are fibroblastic in appearance and dispersed in extracellular matrices.

A

Epithelial cells

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34
Q

Examples of epithelial—mesenchymal interactions include the following:
- ______ and surrounding mesenchyme to produce gut-derived organs, including the liver and pancreas

A

gut endoderm

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35
Q

Examples of epithelial—mesenchymal interactions include the following:
- gut endoderm and surrounding mesenchyme to produce gut-derived organs, including the _____

A

liver and pancreas

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36
Q

Examples of epithelial—mesenchymal interactions include the following:
- ____ with overlying ectoderm (epithelium) to produce limb outgrowth and differentiation; and endoderm of the ureteric bud and mesenchyme from the metanephric blastema to produce nephrons in the kidney

A

limb mesenchyme

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37
Q

Examples of epithelial—mesenchymal interactions include the following:
- limb mesenchyme with overlying ectoderm (epithelium) to produce limb outgrowth and differentiation; and endoderm of the___ and mesenchyme from the metanephric blastema to produce ____ in the kidney

A

ureteric bud - nephrons

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38
Q

_____ can also occur between two epithelial tissues, such as induction of the lens by the epithelium of the optic cup.

A

Inductive interactions

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39
Q

Although an initial signal by the inducer to the responder initiates the inductive event, ____ between the two tissues or cell types is essential for differentiation to continue.

A

crosstalk

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40
Q

______ is essential for induction, for conference of competency to respond, and for crosstalk between inducing and responding cells

A

Cell-to-cell signaling

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41
Q

These lines of communication are established by:
- ______, whereby proteins synthesized by one cell diffuse over short distances to interact with other cells, or by _____, which do not involve diffusable proteins

A

Paracrine interactions - juxtacrine interactions

42
Q

The ______ responsible for paracrine signaling are called paracrine factors or growth and diiferentiation factors (GDFs).

A

diffusable proteins

42
Q

The diffusable proteins responsible for paracrine signaling are called____ or growth and diiferentiation factors (GDFs)

A

paracrine factors

43
Q

___, Paracrine factors act by signal transduction pathways either by activating a pathway directly or by blocking the activity of an inhibitor of a pathway (inhibiting an inhibitor, as is the case with hedgehog signaling)

A

Paracrine Signaling

43
Q

Paracrine Signaling, Paracrine factors act by _____ either by activating a pathway directly or by blocking the activity of an inhibitor of a pathway (inhibiting an inhibitor, as is the case with hedgehog signaling)

A

signal transduction pathways

44
Q

_____ include a signaling molecule (the ligand) and a receptor.

A

Signal transduction pathways

45
Q

Signal transduction pathways include a signaling molecule (the ligand) and a ___

A

receptor

45
Q

Signal transduction pathways include a signaling molecule (the ____) and a receptor

A

ligand

46
Q

The receptor spans the cell membrane and has an ____ (the ligand-binding region), a _____, and a ___

A

extracellular domain - transmembrane domain - cytoplasmic domain

47
Q

Usually, the result of this activation is to confer enzymatic activity to the receptor, and most often, this activity is a ___that can phosphorylate other proteins using ATP as a substrate

A

kinase

48
Q

_____ - Mediated through signal transduction pathways as well but does not involve diffusable factors

A

Juxtacrine Signaling

48
Q

In turn, phosphorylation activates these proteins to phosphorylate additional proteins, and thus, a cascade of protein interactions is established that ultimately activates a _____

A

transcription factor

49
Q

The ____ represents an example of this type of signaling

A

Notch pathway

50
Q

Usually, the result of this activation is to confer enzymatic activity to the receptor, and most often, this activity is a kinase that can __ other proteins using ATP as a substrate

A

phosphorylate

51
Q

The extracellular matrix is the milieu in which cells reside. This milieu consists of large molecules secreted by cells including ___, ____ (chondroitin sulfates, hyaluronic acid, etc.), and ___, such as ___ and ____

A

collagen, proteoglycans - glycoproteins - fibronectin and laminin

52
Q

For example, laminin and type IV collagen are components of the ____ for epithelial cell attachment, and fibronectin molecules form scaffolds for cell migration

A

basal lamina

52
Q

For example, ____ and ____ are components of the basal lamina for epithelial cell attachment, and fibronectin molecules form scaffolds for cell migration

A

laminin and type IV collagen

53
Q

Receptors that link extracellular molecules such as fibronectin and laminin to cells are called ____

A

integrins

54
Q

These receptors “integrate” matrix molecules with a cell’s_____ (e.g., actin microfilaments), thereby creating the ability to migrate along matrix scaffolding by using contractile proteins, such as actin.

A

cytoskeletal machinery

54
Q

There is direct transmission of signals from one cell to another by _____

A

gap junctions

55
Q

These receptors “integrate” matrix molecules with a cell’s cytoskeletal machinery (e.g., actin microfilaments), thereby creating the ability to migrate along matrix scaffolding by using contractile proteins, such as ____

A

actin

56
Q

The junctions themselves are made of _____ that form a channel, and these channels are “connected” between adjacent cells.

A

connexin proteins

57
Q

The four groups of GDFs:

A

1.fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
2.WNT
3.Hedgehog\
4.Transforming growth factor-B (TGF-B) families

58
Q

There is a large number of paracrine signaling factors acting as ligands, which are also called ____

A

GDFs

59
Q

______ - Originally named because they stimulate the growth of fibroblasts in culture; they can produce hundreds of protein isoforms by altering their RNA splicing or their initiation codons

A

Fibroblast Growth Factors

60
Q

FGF proteins produced by these genes activate a collection of tyrosine receptor kinases called _____

A

fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs)

60
Q

FGF proteins produced by these genes activate a collection of _____ called fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs)

A

tyrosine receptor kinases

61
Q

____ is important for the development of the limbs and parts of the brain

A

FGF8

62
Q

______ - The hedgehog gene was named because it coded for a pattern of bristles on the leg of Drosophila that resembled the shape of a hedgehog

A

Hedgehog Proteins

62
Q

In mammals, there are 3 hedgehog genes:

A

1.Desert
2.Indian
3.Sonic hedgehog

63
Q
A
63
Q

_____ - Their receptors are members of the frizzled family of proteins

A

WNT Proteins

64
Q

WNT proteins are involved in ____, ____, and some aspects of ____ and ____ differentiation among other actions

A

regualting limb patterning , midbrain development, somite and urogenita

65
Q

The TGF-B superfamily has more than 30 members and includes the;

A

1.TGF-Bs
2.The bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)
3.The activin family
4.The müllerian inhibiting factor (MIF, anti-müllerian hormone)

66
Q

The first member of the family, ___, was isolated from virally transformed cells.
TGF-B members are important for extracellular matrix formation and epithelial branching that occurs in lung, kidney, and salivary gland development.

A

TGF-B1

67
Q

The first member of the family, TGF-B1, was isolated from virally transformed cells.
TGF-B members are important for ___ and epithelial branching that occurs in lung, kidney, and salivary gland development.

A

extracellular matrix formation

67
Q

The first member of the family, TGF-B1, was isolated from virally transformed cells.
TGF-B members are important for extracellular matrix formation and epithelial branching that occurs in ____, ____, and ___.

A

lung, kidney, and salivary gland development

68
Q

Another group of paracrine signaling molecules important during development are neurotransmitters, including;

A

1.serotonin
2.y-amino butyric acid (GABA)
3.epinephrine
4.norepinephrine

69
Q

____ acts as a ligand for a large number of receptors, most of which are G protein—coupled receptors, regulates a variety of cellular functions, including cell proliferation and migration, and is important for establishing laterality, gastrulation, heart development, and other processes during early stages of differentiation

A

Serotonin (5-HT)

70
Q

____ also acts through receptors and appears to play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the interdigital spaces and in other cell types

A

Norepinephrine

71
Q

the protein ___comes closest to being the master morphogen of them all.

A

SHH

71
Q

The protein binds to its receptor _____, normally inhibits the receptor-like protein Smoothened (Smo).

A

Patched (Ptc)

72
Q

The protein binds to its receptor Patched (Ptc), a protein that normally inhibits the receptor-like protein ____

A

Smoothened (Smo)

73
Q

Upon binding of SHH to Ptc, Ptc activity is eliminated, the inhibition of Smo is removed, and Smo is activated to, ultimately, upregulate activity of the ____ (1 to 3) of transcription factors that control expression of target genes

A

GLI family

73
Q

The specificity of SHH expression in different cell types is regulated by _____ acting independently to control SHH transcription in different cells and tissues

A

multiple enhancer elements

74
Q

Its release from the plasma membrane is produced by the transmembrane protein ___, and at this point, SHH can establish the concentration gradients characteristic of its action as a morphogen.

A

Dispatched

74
Q

The SHH protein has some unique characteristics, including the fact that after translation, it is cleaved and ____ is added to the C-terminus of its N-terminal domain

A

cholesterol

74
Q

The _____ regulates the process of convergent extension whereby a tissue becomes longer and narrower

A

planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway

74
Q

PCP refers to the reorganization of cells and cell sheets in the plane of a tissue, such as occurs during _____

A

convergent extension

74
Q

The principal PCP signaling pathway:
- ______, which includes the Wnt receptor Frizzled (Fz)
- ___ and ___

A

noncanonical WNT pathway
Celsr and Vangl

75
Q

These transmembrane proteins primarily target activation of _____, either directly or through downstream effectors, such as Prickle (Pk) and Diego (Dgo)

A

DISHEVELLED (DVL)

76
Q

The principal PCP signaling pathway:
- noncanonical WNT pathway, which includes the ______
- Celsr and Vangl

A

Wnt receptor Frizzled (Fz)

77
Q

In turn, Dvl regulates signaling via the ____ and ___ N-terminal kinases (JNK) that control cytoskeletal changes and other down- stream eifectors including transcription factors.

A

Rho and Rac kinases

77
Q

These transmembrane proteins primarily target activation of DISHEVELLED (DVL), either directly or through downstream effectors, such as ____ and ___

A

Prickle (Pk) and Diego (Dgo)

78
Q

In turn, Dvl regulates signaling via the Rho and Rac kinases to upregulate ___ and other down- stream eifectors including transcription factors.

A

c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK)

78
Q

Notch transmembrane receptors bind to transmembrane ligands of the_____, which requires cell-to-cell contact (juxtacrine signaling) for signaling to occur

A

DSL (Delta/Serrate/ LAG-2) family

78
Q

In turn, Dvl regulates signaling via the Rho and Rac kinases to upregulate c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) that control ____ and other down- stream eifectors including transcription factors.

A

cytoskeletal changes

79
Q

In mammals, there are four Notch family members and five transmembrane ligands (______)

A

lagged 1 and 2 and Delta 1 to 3

80
Q

Binding of one of these proteins to a Notch receptor causes a conformational change in the Notch protein such that part of it on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane is cleaved.
True/False

A

True

80
Q

The pathway is very straightforward in that there are no second messengers involved.
True/ False

A

True

81
Q

___ have also been linked to cases of tetralogy of Fallot (a cardiac outflow tract defect).

A

JAG1 mutations

82
Q

JAG1 mutations have also been linked to cases of _____ (a cardiac outflow tract defect).

A

tetralogy of Fallot

82
Q

Mutations in JAG1 or NOTCH2 cause ___ characterized by cardiac outflow tract defects as well as skeletal, ocular, renal, and hepatic abnormalities

A

Alagille syndrome

Embryology (21 decks)

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