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PSYCH 258 > Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity > Flashcards

Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity Flashcards

1
Q

Problem

A

a situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

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2
Q

Restructuring

A

the process of changing a problem’s representation, according to the Gestalt psychologists

restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving

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3
Q

Insight

A

sudden realization of a problem’s solution

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4
Q

Analytically Based Problems

A

problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experiences

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5
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function

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6
Q

Candle Problem

A

a problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor, the problem was used to study functional fixedness

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7
Q

Two-String Problem

A

a problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two string together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time

this task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness

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8
Q

Mental Set

A

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past

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9
Q

Water Jug Problem

A

a problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem

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10
Q

Tower of Hanoi Problem

A

a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another

it has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

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11
Q

Initial State

A

in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved

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12
Q

Goal State

A

in problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved

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13
Q

Operators

A

in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution

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14
Q

Intermediate State

A

in problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states

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15
Q

Problem Space

A

the initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem

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16
Q

Means-End Analysis

A

a problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

this is achieved by creating sub-goals and intermediate steps that are closer to the goal

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17
Q

Sub-Goals

A

in the means-end analysis approach to problem solving

intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal

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18
Q

Mutilated Checkboard Problem

A

a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution

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19
Q

Think-Aloud Problem

A

a procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem

this procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem

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20
Q

Analogy

A

making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

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21
Q

Analogical Problem Solving

A

the use of analogies as an aid to solving problems

typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem

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22
Q

Analogical Transfer

A

transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem

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23
Q

Target Problem

A

a problem to be solved, in analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story

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24
Q

Source Problem

A

a problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution of the target problem

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25
Radiation Problem
a problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body this problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving
26
Analogical Encoding
a technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle this technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems
27
Trade-Off Strategy
a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another. "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B"
28
Contingency Strategy
a negotiating strategy in which a person get what he or she wants if something else happens
29
Analogical Paradox
people find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings
30
In vivo Problem Solving Research
observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations this technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department
31
Experts
person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field
32
Divergent Thinking
thinking that is open-ended involving a large number of potential solutions
33
Group Brainstorming
when people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship
34
Creative Cognition
a technique developed by Finke to train people to think creativity
35
Pre-inventive Forms
objects created in Finke's "creative cognition" experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product
36
Nine-Dot Problem
a problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line
37
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
a procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person's head
38
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an electrical response recorded from the scalp using disc electrodes
39
Compound Remote-Associate Problem
a problem in which three words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each if these words forms a new word or a phrase
40
Incubation
the phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a "time-out" from working on a problem
41
Alternative Uses Task
a task used to assess creativity, in which the person's task is to think unusual uses for an object also called the unusual uses task
42
Executive Control Network (ECN)
a brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks
43
Daydreaming
mind wandering
44
Volitional Daydreaming
the act of consciously to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes
45
Mindfulness
paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment
46
Meditation
a number of different practices for controlling the mind
47
Focused Attention (FA) Meditation
a type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath
48
Opening Monitoring (OM) Meditation
a type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes to mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along
49
Imagination Network
Kaufman and Gregoire's (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN)
50
What is a problem?
an obstacle between a present state and a goal not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle difficult
51
What is the Gestalt approach to problem solving?
representing a problem in the mind
52
What is restructuring?
changes the problem's representation sudden realization of the problem's solution often requires restructuring the problem
53
What is functional fixedness?
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports two-string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight
54
What is a mental set?
a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person's past experiences with the problem (or similar problems) Water-jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution
55
What is the problem space
consists of the initial state, intermediate state(s) and the goal state
56
What are operators?
actions taking the problem from one state to another there are rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not
57
What is a means-end analysis?
reduce differences between initial and goal states
58
What are subgoals?
create intermediate states closer to goals
59
What is the mutilated-checkerboard problem?
conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem
60
What is think-aloud protocol?
say aloud what one is thinking shift in how one perceives elements of a problem
61
What is analogical problem solving?
using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem
62
What is analogical transfer?
the transfer from one problem to another source problem to target problem
63
What is analogical encoding?
comparing two cases that illustrate a principle (structure)
64
What is an analogical paradox?
it can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world settings
65
What is in vivo problem solving research?
people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world advantage: naturalistic setting disadvantage: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables
66
What is an expert?
a person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field experts solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners experts possess more knowledge about their fields
67
How do experts solve problems?
experts spend more time analyzing problem experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field experts are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems
68
What is creativity?
innovative thinking novel ideas new connections between existing ideas divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential "solutions"
69
What is design fixation?
fixated on what not to do as demonstrated by sample fixation can inhibit problem solving
70
What is cognitive creation?
technique to train people to think creatively
71
What are preinventive forms?
ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
72
What is the default mode network?
incubation: getting ideas after taking "time-out" from working on a problem
73
What is daydreaming?
volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering
74
What is solitude?
avoiding distractions, giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning
75
What is mindfulness?
focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted open monitoring meditation: pat attention to whatever come up and follow it until the next thing

PSYCH 258 (13 decks)

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