Chapter 14: Cardiac Output and BP Flashcards
1
Q
What is cardiac output?
A
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped each minute by each ventricle. It can be calculated using the formula: Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate.
2
Q
What are the average values for heart rate stroke volume and cardiac output?
A
The average heart rate is about 70 beats per minute (bpm) the average stroke volume is between 70 to 80 milliliters per beat (ml/beat) leading to an average cardiac output of approximately 5500 milliliters per minute (ml/min).
3
Q
What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?
A
The formula for calculating cardiac output is: Cardiac Output (ml/min) = Stroke Volume (ml/beat) x Heart Rate (beats/min).
4
Q
What initiates spontaneous depolarization in the heart?
A
Spontaneous depolarization occurs at the sinoatrial (SA) node when hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels open allowing sodium (Na) ions to enter the cell.
5
Q
How does sympathetic stimulation affect heart rate?
A
Sympathetic stimulation involving norepinephrine and adrenal epinephrine keeps HCN and calcium (Ca2+) channels open which increases the heart rate.
6
Q
How does parasympathetic stimulation affect heart rate?
A
Parasympathetic stimulation involves acetylcholine which opens potassium (K+) channels leading to a decrease in heart rate.
7
Q
What is the major means of regulating heart rate?
A
The major means of regulating heart rate is through autonomic innervation of the SA node which involves the net effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic inputs.
8
Q
What is the positive chronotropic effect?
A
The positive chronotropic effect refers to the increase in heart rate due to sympathetic stimulation that enhances the rate of spontaneous depolarization at the SA node.
9
Q
What role do HCN channels play in heart rate regulation?
A
HCN channels play a crucial role in heart rate regulation by allowing sodium ions to enter the pacemaker cells of the SA node contributing to spontaneous depolarization and the generation of action potentials.
10
Q
What is the function of the SA node in the heart?
A
The SA node or sinoatrial node serves as the natural pacemaker of the heart initiating electrical signals that propagate through the heart muscle to stimulate contraction and regulate heart rate.
11
Q
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A
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12
Q
Which part of the brain controls the heart rate and how is it influenced?
A
The cardiac center of the medulla oblongata controls heart rate. It is affected by higher brain centers and sensory feedback from baroreceptors located in the aorta and carotid arteries.
13
Q
What primarily determines the resting cardiac rate?
A
The resting cardiac rate is mainly determined by the level of parasympathetic vagus nerve activity.
14
Q
What is End Diastolic Volume (EDV) and what is its significance?
A
End Diastolic Volume (EDV) is the volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole. It is sometimes referred to as preload and is significant because stroke volume increases with an increased EDV.
15
Q
What does the term ‘total peripheral resistance’ refer to and how does it relate to stroke volume?
A
Total peripheral resistance refers to the frictional resistance in the arteries also known as afterload. It is inversely related to stroke volume; as total peripheral resistance increases stroke volume decreases.
16
Q
Define contractility in the context of cardiac function and its effect on stroke volume.
A
Contractility refers to the strength of ventricular contraction. Stroke volume increases with increased contractility meaning a stronger contraction allows more blood to be ejected from the heart.
17
Q
What is the ejection fraction and its typical value?
A
The ejection fraction is the percentage of the End Diastolic Volume (EDV) that is ejected during a heartbeat. Normally about 60% of the EDV is ejected which corresponds to about 70-80 mL of blood.
18
Q
List the three variables that regulate stroke volume.
A
The three variables that regulate stroke volume are: 1) End Diastolic Volume (EDV) 2) Total Peripheral Resistance (Afterload) and 3) Contractility.
19
Q
What happens to stroke volume with increased End Diastolic Volume (EDV)?
A
Stroke volume increases with increased End Diastolic Volume (EDV). This is because a higher volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole allows for a greater force of contraction.
20
Q
What is the relationship between stroke volume and contractility?
A
Stroke volume increases with increased contractility. When the strength of the ventricular contraction enhances the heart pumps more blood per beat.
21
Q
What is the Frank-Starling Law of the Heart?
A
The Frank-Starling Law of the Heart states that an increase in end-diastolic volume (EDV) results in increased contractility which leads to an increased stroke volume. This relationship illustrates how the heart can adjust its pumping capacity based on the volume of blood returning to it.
22
Q
How does increased EDV affect myocardial stretch?
A
Increased end-diastolic volume (EDV) stretches the myocardium which leads to an increase in the strength of cardiac contraction. This phenomenon occurs due to enhanced overlap between myosin and actin filaments and increased sensitivity of calcium (Ca2+) release channels in cardiac muscle cells.
23
Q
What is intrinsic control of contraction strength in relation to stroke volume?
A
Intrinsic control of contraction strength refers to the heart’s ability to modulate its contraction based on the degree of myocardial stretch. Increased EDV stretches the myocardium enhancing the strength of contraction through better myofilament overlap and increased responsiveness of the Ca2+ channels.
24
Q
What happens to stroke volume when there is an increase in peripheral resistance?
A
An increase in peripheral resistance results in a decreased stroke volume because more blood remains in the ventricles after contraction leading to an increase in end-diastolic volume (EDV). This situation can compromise the heart’s efficiency in pumping blood.
25
What is extrinsic control of contractility?
Extrinsic control of contractility refers to the regulation of the heart's strength of contraction independent of fiber length primarily influenced by external factors such as hormones in the bloodstream. This includes the effects of sympathetic norepinephrine and adrenal epinephrine which have a positive inotropic effect that can enhance contractility by increasing the availability of calcium (Ca2+) in cardiac muscle cells.
26
What role does calcium (Ca2+) play in cardiac muscle contractility?
Calcium (Ca2+) plays a crucial role in cardiac muscle contractility. Increased availability of Ca2+ enhances the strength of contraction in cardiac muscle cells allowing for a more forceful ejection of blood from the heart. The sensitivity of Ca2+ release channels is increased as myocardial stretch occurs further boosting contractility.
27
What effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on heart rate and what neurochemical is involved?
The sympathetic nervous system has a positive chronotropic effect on heart rate which increases it. This effect is mediated by the release of norepinephrine.
28
What is the effect of the parasympathetic nervous system on heart rate and what neurochemical is involved?
The parasympathetic nervous system has a negative chronotropic effect on heart rate which decreases it. This effect is mediated by acetylcholine.
29
How does an increase in end diastolic volume (EDV) affect cardiac contraction strength and stroke volume?
An increase in end diastolic volume (EDV) leads to a stronger contraction which increases stroke volume.
30
What happens to cardiac output when heart rate decreases while EDV and stroke volume increase?
When heart rate decreases but end diastolic volume (EDV) and stroke volume increase cardiac output may decrease overall due to the insufficient compensation by the slower heart rate.
31
What are the main factors that control end diastolic volume (EDV)?
End diastolic volume (EDV) is controlled primarily by factors that affect venous return which include total blood volume and venous pressure.
32
Explain the compliance of veins compared to arteries and its significance in the circulatory system.
Veins have high compliance meaning they stretch more easily at a given pressure compared to arteries. This means veins can accommodate larger volumes of blood without significantly increasing pressure. They have thinner walls compared to arteries making them more adaptable as capacitance vessels.
33
What percentage of the total blood volume is held in veins and how does this compare to arteries?
Veins hold approximately 23% of the total blood volume. They maintain lower pressure compared to arteries which hold less blood but at a higher pressure.
34
What are the key driving forces for venous return?
The key driving forces for venous return include the pressure difference between arteries and veins as well as the pressure differences within the venous system specifically the higher pressure in venules versus the lowest pressure in the venae cavae.
35
Define capacitance vessels and provide an example of such vessels in the circulatory system.
Capacitance vessels are blood vessels that can hold a significant volume of blood with relatively low pressure. Veins are an example of capacitance vessels as they can expand to store blood and maintain lower blood pressure compared to arteries.
36
Describe the relationship between total blood volume and venous return.
Total blood volume is a contributing factor to venous return; a higher blood volume can increase the venous pressure thereby enhancing the driving force that returns blood to the heart.
37
What physiological changes occur when venous return decreases?
When venous return decreases it leads to a reduction in end diastolic volume (EDV) which can then decrease stroke volume and consequently lower cardiac output.
38
What is the pressure in the right atrium of the heart?
0 mm Hg
39
What role does sympathetic nerve activity play in relation to venous return?
Sympathetic nerve activity stimulates smooth muscle contraction which lowers compliance in blood vessels thereby aiding in venous return.
40
What is the function of skeletal muscle pumps in venous return?
Skeletal muscle pumps assist venous return by contracting muscles that compress veins and push blood toward the heart helping to overcome the effects of gravity.
41
How do pressure differences between abdominal and thoracic cavities affect respiration and venous return?
The pressure difference created by respiration helps facilitate blood flow from the abdominal cavity to the thoracic cavity aiding in venous return to the heart.
42
What are the primary factors influencing venous return?
Factors influencing venous return include blood volume skeletal muscle pump activity sympathetic nerve activity and the pressure differences created during respiration.
43
What is the total body water distribution in humans?
Approximately 2/3 of body water is found in cells (intracellular) while of the remaining water 80% is in interstitial spaces and 20% is in blood plasma (extracellular).
44
How do blood pressure and osmotic forces control the movement of water in the body?
Blood pressure and osmotic forces regulate the movement of water between interstitial spaces and capillaries influencing overall blood volume and tissue hydration.
45
How do urine formation and water intake influence blood volume?
Urine formation through renal processes and water intake from drinking both contribute to regulating blood volume by affecting the amount of fluid retained or expelled from the body.
46
What is net filtration pressure (NFP) in capillaries?
Net filtration pressure is the difference between hydrostatic pressure of blood in the capillaries and the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid outside the capillaries.
47
What are the hydrostatic pressures at the arteriole and venule ends of a capillary?
At the arteriole end hydrostatic pressure is 37 mmHg and at the venule end it is 17 mmHg.
48
What does a higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end compared to the venule end indicate for fluid movement?
A higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end compared to the venule end indicates that fluid will tend to filter out of the capillary into the interstitial space facilitating nutrient and gas exchange.
49
What is the pressure of interstitial fluid?
The pressure of interstitial fluid is 1 mmHg.
50
What is net filtration pressure at the arteriole end of a capillary?
The net filtration pressure at the arteriole end is 36 mmHg.
51
What is net filtration pressure at the venule end of a capillary?
The net filtration pressure at the venule end is 16 mmHg.
52
What is colloid osmotic pressure and what causes it?
Colloid osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted by proteins dissolved in fluid. It is primarily due to the presence of albumin and other proteins in the blood.
53
How does the colloid osmotic pressure of blood plasma compare to that of interstitial fluid?
Blood plasma has a higher colloid osmotic pressure than interstitial fluid.
54
What is oncotic pressure?
Oncotic pressure is the difference in colloid osmotic pressure between blood plasma and interstitial fluid which is typically 25 mmHg.
55
What is the effect of oncotic pressure on fluid movement?
Oncotic pressure favors the movement of fluid into the capillaries helping to retain fluid within the vascular system.
56
What are the Starling Forces?
Starling Forces refer to the combination of hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure that predict the movement of fluid across capillary membranes.
57
What equation represents the fluid movement across capillary membranes according to the Starling Forces?
The equation representing fluid movement is: Fluid movement = (p_c - p_i) - (p_f_out - p_f_in) where p_c is hydrostatic pressure in capillary p_i is colloid osmotic pressure of interstitial fluid p_f_out is hydrostatic pressure of interstitial fluid and p_f_in is colloid osmotic pressure of blood plasma.
58
At which end of the capillary do Starling Forces predict the movement of fluid out of the capillaries?
Starling Forces predict the movement of fluid out of the capillaries at the arteriole end.
59
What characterizes the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures at the arteriole end of a capillary?
At the arteriole end the hydrostatic pressure is typically higher than the osmotic pressure resulting in a net movement of fluid out of the capillary.
60
What role does hydrostatic pressure play in capillary fluid exchange?
Hydrostatic pressure drives fluid out of the capillary into the interstitial space influencing fluid filtration.
61
What happens to fluid movement at the venule end of a capillary?
At the venule end the net filtration pressure decreases; the osmotic pressure predominates favoring the reabsorption of fluid back into the capillary.
62
What factors influence fluid return at the venous end of capillaries?
The return of fluids at the venous end of capillaries is influenced by osmotic and hydrostatic pressures. The hydrostatic pressure is lower at the venous end leading to a negative net filtration pressure and allowing for fluid reabsorption. However not all fluid returns; approximately 10-15% of interstitial fluid remains in the tissues.
63
What happens to the excess fluid that remains in the interstitial spaces?
The excess fluid that remains in the interstitial spaces will enter lymphatic capillaries and ultimately return to the venous system helping to maintain fluid balance in the body.
64
What is edema and what are its causes?
Edema is the excessive accumulation of interstitial fluids. Causes of edema may include: 1) High arterial blood pressure 2) Venous obstruction 3) Leakage of plasma proteins into the interstitial space 4) Myxedema (excessive production of mucin in extracellular spaces caused by hypothyroidism) 5) Decreased plasma protein concentration and 6) Obstruction of lymphatic drainage.
65
What is filariasis?
Filariasis is a tropical disease caused by parasitic nematodes which are spread by bloodsucking insects such as mosquitoes. It can lead to conditions such as elephantiasis.
66
What is the pathophysiology of elephantiasis?
In elephantiasis species of filarial worms reside in the lymphatic system and their larvae block lymphatic drainage resulting in severe swelling and edema in affected areas.
67
In how many countries is filariasis found and what is the estimated affected population?
Filariasis is found in approximately 72 tropical countries affecting over a billion people globally.
68
Describe the role of hydrostatic pressure in capillary fluid exchange.
Hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted by the fluid against the capillary walls promoting the movement of fluid out of the capillaries into the interstitial spaces at the arterial end. This pressure decreases at the venous end aiding in fluid reabsorption.
69
What is the significance of plasma proteins in maintaining fluid balance?
Plasma proteins particularly albumin contribute to the osmotic pressure in the blood; a decrease in plasma protein concentration can lead to fluid leaking into interstitial spaces potentially causing edema.
70
What physiological mechanisms do the lymphatic system utilize to restore fluid balance after interstitial accumulation?
The lymphatic system collects excess interstitial fluid through lymphatic capillaries filters it through lymph nodes and ultimately returns it to the bloodstream thereby helping restore fluid balance.
71
What role does the hypothalamus play in puffy conditions such as myxedema?
The hypothalamus regulates the thyroid gland and when its function is impaired it can lead to hypothyroidism resulting in excessive production of mucin leading to myxedema and accumulation of interstitial fluid.
72
What is the impact of filariasis on the human body?
Filariasis is a parasitic infection that can cause severe edema including elephantiasis which results in extreme swelling of body parts due to an immune response and blockage of lymphatic vessels.
73
What type of infection does filariasis refer to?
Filariasis refers to a parasitic infection caused by filarial worms usually transmitted to humans through mosquito bites.
74
What is the significance of effective drug therapy in relation to filariasis?
The availability of effective drug therapy against the filariasis parasite is crucial for treating infections and reducing the incidence of severe complications such as elephantiasis.
75
What is the initial process in urine formation in the kidneys?
The initial process in urine formation is the filtration of fluid through capillaries in the kidneys called glomeruli.
76
How much filtrate is processed by the glomeruli in a day and how much becomes urine?
About 180 liters of filtrate is processed by the glomeruli each day but only approximately 1.5 liters is excreted as urine while the rest is reabsorbed into the blood.
77
What controls the amount of fluid reabsorbed in the kidneys?
The amount of fluid reabsorbed in the kidneys is controlled by various hormones and the sympathetic nervous system in response to the body's needs.
78
What role does Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) play in kidney function?
ADH or vasopressin regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys and is released when osmoreceptors detect increased plasma osmolarity.
79
When is ADH released and what physiological conditions lead to its release?
ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary when osmoreceptors detect increased plasma osmolarity often due to excessive salt intake or dehydration.
80
How does increased plasma osmolarity affect thirst?
Increased plasma osmolarity stimulates thirst encouraging water intake to restore balance in body fluids.
81
What physiological changes can lead to an increase in plasma osmolarity?
Excessive salt intake and dehydration are physiological conditions that can lead to an increase in plasma osmolarity.
82
What is the primary function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) in blood volume regulation?
ADH stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys which leads to increased blood volume.
83
How does increased water intake affect blood volume and urine formation?
Increased water intake leads to decreased urine formation resulting in increased blood volume.
84
What happens to blood when there is an increase in blood volume due to water reabsorption?
The blood becomes dilute leading to a decrease in the release of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
85
Describe the negative feedback control of blood volume by ADH.
When blood volume is high ADH release diminishes which reduces water reabsorption leading to increased urine output thus restoring normal blood volume.
86
What role does aldosterone play in the regulation of blood volume?
Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex and stimulates the reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidneys which helps increase blood volume and pressure.
87
Explain the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS).
The RAAS is activated when blood pressure is low. It involves the secretion of renin from the kidneys converting angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which is then converted to angiotensin II by ACE.
88
What is the function of angiotensin II in blood pressure regulation?
Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction of small arteries leading to increased blood pressure.
89
What triggers the secretion of renin in the kidneys?
Renin is secreted when blood pressure is low as detected by cells in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys.
90
What is the relationship between blood pressure renin and angiotensinogen?
When blood pressure is low renin converts angiotensinogen from the liver into angiotensin I eventually leading to increased blood pressure.
91
What enzyme converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II?
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.
92
List the mechanisms through which angiotensin II contributes to increased blood pressure.
Angiotensin II promotes vasoconstriction of blood vessels stimulates aldosterone secretion enhances thirst response and increasing reabsorption of sodium and water.
93
What is the role of arterioles in the context of peripheral resistance?
Arterioles are small blood vessels that control blood flow and peripheral resistance by constricting or dilating. When arterioles constrict they increase peripheral resistance which raises blood pressure.
94
How does the thirst center in the hypothalamus respond to changes in blood pressure?
The thirst center in the hypothalamus is stimulated when blood pressure decreases signaling the need for increased fluid intake to help restore blood volume and pressure.
95
What is the function of aldosterone in the adrenal cortex?
Aldosterone produced in the adrenal cortex helps regulate sodium and potassium levels in the blood. It stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb sodium and excrete potassium which increases blood volume and blood pressure.
96
What is the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)?
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System is a hormonal system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. It begins with the release of renin from the kidneys leading to the formation of angiotensin II which causes vasoconstriction and stimulates aldosterone secretion.
97
Describe the relationship between blood flow and pressure difference.
Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. The rate of blood flow is directly proportional to the pressure difference between two points in the vascular system.
98
What factors influence the rate of blood flow in the vessels?
The rate of blood flow is influenced by the pressure difference between two points the frictional resistance within the vessels and the viscosity of the blood.
99
How does the radius of a blood vessel affect resistance?
Resistance to blood flow is inversely related to the radius of the blood vessel raised to the fourth power. A small change in the radius can lead to significant changes in resistance.
100
What is the relationship between vessel length blood viscosity and resistance?
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the blood vessel and the viscosity of the blood. Longer vessels and more viscous blood lead to higher resistance.
101
Define the formula for resistance in the context of blood flow.
Resistance (R) can be quantified as R = (u * L) / (r^4) where L is the length of the vessel u is the viscosity of the blood and r is the radius of the blood vessel.
102
Explain how resistance affects blood flow to tissues and organs.
Increased resistance in the blood vessels reduces blood flow to tissues and organs. Conversely decreased resistance allows for increased blood flow. This regulation is crucial for maintaining adequate perfusion and oxygen delivery.
103
What is Poiseuille's Law in relation to blood flow?
Poiseuille's Law describes how blood flow (Q) is affected by vessel radius (r) vessel length (L) blood viscosity (η) and pressure difference (ΔP) across the vessel. The formula is: Q = (π * r^4 * ΔP) / (8 * η * L). This indicates that blood flow increases dramatically with the increase in vessel radius.
104
What physical factors are considered most important in determining blood flow according to Poiseuille's Law?
According to Poiseuille's Law the most important factors determining blood flow are arterial pressure (ΔP) and vessel radius (r). While vessel length (L) and blood viscosity (η) contribute to resistance they typically maintain consistent values.
105
What effect does vasoconstriction of arterioles have on blood flow?
Vasoconstriction of arterioles significantly increases resistance to blood flow which can redirect blood circulation away from certain organs and tissues allowing for prioritization of blood flow to more vital organs.
106
Define Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR).
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) is the sum of all vascular resistance in the systemic circulation. It reflects the overall resistance the heart must overcome to pump blood through the entire systemic vascular system.
107
How does blood flow to organs occur in relation to Total Peripheral Resistance?
Blood flow to organs runs parallel to each other within the systemic circulation meaning that a change in resistance in one organ does not affect the blood flow to another organ due to their configuration.
108
What happens during vasodilation in a large organ and how does it affect Total Peripheral Resistance and mean arterial pressure?
During vasodilation in a large organ total peripheral resistance and mean arterial pressure may decrease since vasodilation lowers vascular resistance. However this is often compensated by increased cardiac output and vasoconstriction in other vascular regions.
109
What is the relationship between blood flow vessel radius and resistance?
Blood flow is directly proportional to the fourth power of vessel radius (r^4) meaning that even a small increase in vessel radius can lead to a significant increase in blood flow while resistance is inversely proportional to vessel radius.
110
Describe the effects of increased cardiac output when there's a decrease in total peripheral resistance.
When total peripheral resistance decreases such as from widespread vasodilation the body can compensate through an increase in cardiac output. This helps maintain adequate blood pressure and ensures that necessary blood flow to organs is preserved.
111
What physical constraints do not normally vary in Poiseuille's Law?
In the context of Poiseuille's Law concerning blood flow vessel length (L) and blood viscosity (η) are the physical constraints that do not typically vary under normal physiological conditions.
112
Explain the significance of pressure differences in different parts of systemic circulation.
Pressure differences across various segments of the systemic circulation are critical as they drive blood flow. The gradients created by the heart's pumping action ensure that blood moves efficiently through the arteries arterioles capillaries venules and veins impacting overall circulation and organ perfusion.
113
What is the role of sympathetic nerves in the regulation of blood flow?
Sympathetic nerves increase cardiac output and total peripheral resistance through the release of norepinephrine which causes vasoconstriction by activating alpha-adrenergic receptors.
114
How does adrenal epinephrine affect blood flow?
Adrenal epinephrine stimulates beta-adrenergic receptors leading to vasodilation.
115
What occurs during the 'fight or flight' response in terms of blood flow?
During 'fight or flight' blood is diverted to skeletal muscles to enhance readiness for physical activity.
116
What neurotransmitter is released by parasympathetic nerves and what effect does it have?
Parasympathetic nerves release acetylcholine which stimulates vasodilation.
117
Where is the effect of parasympathetic nerves primarily observed?
The effect of parasympathetic nerves is primarily observed in the blood vessels of the digestive tract external genitalia and salivary glands.
118
Why is the parasympathetic nervous system less important for controlling total peripheral resistance?
The parasympathetic nervous system is less important for controlling total peripheral resistance due to its limited influence on blood vessels.
119
According to Table 14.4 what is the extrinsic agent mentioned for blood flow control and its effect?
The extrinsic agent mentioned is sympathetic nerves which lead to vasoconstriction via alpha-adrenergic receptors.
120
What are alpha-adrenergic receptors associated with in terms of blood flow regulation?
Alpha-adrenergic receptors are associated with vasoconstriction which increases total peripheral resistance.
121
What are beta-adrenergic receptors associated with in the context of blood flow?
Beta-adrenergic receptors are associated with vasodilation helping to increase blood flow during certain physiological responses.
122
What happens to blood flow in non-emergency situations compared to 'fight or flight' scenarios?
In non-emergency situations blood flow is more evenly distributed to various organs whereas during 'fight or flight' blood flow is prioritized to skeletal muscles.
123
Describe the basic function of extrinsic controls in vascular resistance and blood flow.
Extrinsic controls regulate vascular resistance and blood flow primarily through autonomic nervous system activity and endocrine factors affecting the contraction and relaxation of blood vessels.
124
What is the dominant effect of sympathetic nerve stimulation on the vascular system?
Vasoconstriction is the dominant effect of sympathetic nerve stimulation on the vascular system occurring throughout the body.
125
What role do beta-adrenergic receptors play in the vascular system?
Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate vasodilation in arterioles in skeletal muscles and coronary vessels although their effects are often masked by the dominant alpha-receptor-mediated vasoconstriction.
126
How does cholinergic vasodilation occur and when?
Cholinergic vasodilation effects are localized to arterioles in skeletal muscles and are produced primarily during defense reactions such as fight-or-flight responses.
127
What is the primary effect of parasympathetic nerves on vascular system?
Parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilation primarily in the gastrointestinal tract external genitalia and salivary glands with little effect on total peripheral resistance.
128
What is the function of Angiotensin II in the vascular system?
Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor produced from renin secretion in the kidneys helping to maintain adequate filtration pressure when systemic blood flow and pressure are reduced.
129
What is the primary effect of ADH (vasopressin) on the vascular system?
ADH (vasopressin) primarily induces vasoconstriction; however the specific effects on vascular tone need to be understood in context with its role in fluid balance.
130
Which hormones and receptors are primarily involved in vasoconstriction?
The hormones involved in vasoconstriction primarily include norepinephrine (via alpha receptors) and angiotensin II. Norepinephrine is released during sympathetic stimulation predominantly affecting alpha receptors that mediate constriction.
131
What role does the sympathetic nervous system play in regulating blood vessel diameter?
The sympathetic nervous system primarily induces vasoconstriction through norepinephrine release resulting in increased vascular resistance and blood pressure in most blood vessels.
132
Under which physiological conditions does cholinergic vasodilation become significant?
Cholinergic vasodilation becomes significant during acute physiological stressors like during the fight-or-flight response when increased blood flow to skeletal muscles is necessary.
133
What are the specific target areas for parasympathetic vasodilation?
The specific target areas for parasympathetic vasodilation include the gastrointestinal tract external genitalia and salivary glands.
134
How does the body respond to reduced systemic blood flow and pressure?
In response to reduced systemic blood flow and pressure the body releases renin from the kidneys leading to the production of angiotensin II which functions to cause vasoconstriction and maintain renal filtration pressure.
135
Explain the relationship between sympathetic stimulation beta receptors and alpha receptors in the context of blood vessel regulation.
Sympathetic stimulation predominantly causes vasoconstriction through alpha receptors. While beta-adrenergic receptors can mediate vasodilation in certain contexts (such as in skeletal muscle and coronary vessels) their effects are often overshadowed by the dominant vasoconstrictive effects of alpha receptors under sympathetic stimulation.
136
What are the implications of ADH action on vascular tone beyond vasoconstriction?
While ADH primarily causes vasoconstriction it also plays a critical role in fluid balance and maintaining blood volume which can indirectly influence vascular tone and blood pressure regulation.
137
What is the effect of histamine in terms of blood pressure and resistance during inflammation and allergic reactions?
Histamine promotes localized vasodilation during inflammation and allergic reactions which can affect blood pressure and resistance.
138
What role do bradykinins play in vasodilation?
Bradykinins are polypeptides that are secreted by sweat glands and the endothelium of blood vessels and they promote localized vasodilation.
139
What are prostaglandins and what effects do they have on blood vessels?
Prostaglandins are cyclic fatty acids produced by most tissues including blood vessel walls. They can cause either vasodilation or vasoconstriction depending on the specific type; Prostaglandin I2 is a vasodilator while thromboxane A2 is a vasoconstrictor.
140
What is the significance of the conflicting physiological effects of prostaglandins?
The physiological significance of the contrasting effects of prostaglandins on vasodilation and vasoconstriction is currently controversial.
141
What is paracrine regulation of blood flow?
Paracrine regulation of blood flow refers to the process by which molecules produced by one tissue control the activity of another tissue within the same organ.
142
Provide an example of paracrine regulation of blood flow.
An example of paracrine regulation is when the tunica interna produces signals that influence the activity of smooth muscle in the tunica media of blood vessels.
143
How does bradykinin influence smooth muscle relaxation?
Bradykinin influences smooth muscle relaxation by promoting vasodilation which leads to the relaxation of smooth muscle in blood vessels.
144
What roles do nitric oxide and prostaglandin I2 play in the body?
Nitric oxide and prostaglandin I2 are involved in producing vasodilation which is the widening of blood vessels.
145
What is the function of endothelin-1 in the cardiovascular system?
Endothelin-1 stimulates smooth muscle contraction resulting in vasoconstriction which is the narrowing of blood vessels.
146
What is intrinsic regulation of blood flow?
Intrinsic regulation of blood flow also known as autoregulation is a mechanism used by some organs such as the brain and kidneys to maintain constant blood flow despite fluctuations in blood pressure.
147
What are myogenic control mechanisms in blood flow regulation?
Myogenic control mechanisms involve the vascular smooth muscle's response to changes in arterial blood pressure allowing for adjustments in vascular tone and blood flow.
148
What are metabolic control mechanisms in controlling blood flow?
Metabolic control mechanisms regulate local vasodilation based on the metabolic needs of the tissue particularly influenced by factors such as decreased oxygen concentrations increased carbon dioxide concentrations decreased tissue pH and the release of potassium and paracrine signals like nitric oxide.
149
What is reactive hyperemia?
Reactive hyperemia refers to the transient increase in organ blood flow that occurs following a brief period of ischemia (constricted blood flow) leading to a build-up of metabolic wastes that triggers vasodilation.
150
What is active hyperemia?
Active hyperemia is characterized by increased blood flow to a tissue during periods of increased metabolic activity corresponding to the enhanced need for oxygen and nutrients.
151
List the conditions that lead to local vasodilation under metabolic control mechanisms.
Local vasodilation occurs due to: 1. Decreased oxygen concentrations due to increased metabolism. 2. Increased carbon dioxide concentrations. 3. Decreased tissue pH due to CO2 lactic acid etc. 4. Release of potassium ions and paracrine signals like nitric oxide.
152
Why is constant blood flow important for organs like the brain and kidneys?
Constant blood flow is vital for the brain and kidneys to ensure they receive a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients maintain homeostasis and effectively carry out their physiological functions despite fluctuations in systemic blood pressure.
153
What are the coronary arteries responsible for?
The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle specifically feeding a massive number of capillaries that range from 2500 to 4000 per cubic mm of cardiac tissue.
154
How does blood flow during systole differ from diastole in the heart?
During systole blood flow to the heart muscle is restricted due to the contraction of the heart. In contrast blood flow is more freely allowed during diastole when the heart relaxes.
155
What role does myoglobin play in the cardiac tissue?
Myoglobin in cardiac tissue serves to store oxygen during diastole which can then be released and utilized during systole when blood flow is restricted.
156
What are the characteristics of cardiac tissue in terms of its metabolic activity?
Cardiac tissue is metabolically very active having a high number of mitochondria and respiratory enzymes that facilitate aerobic metabolism.
157
What is an angiogram?
An angiogram is an X-ray image that uses a contrast dye to visualize blood vessels including the coronary arteries to assess conditions like narrowing due to atherosclerotic plaques thrombosis or spasms.
158
What is the purpose of a coronary angiogram?
A coronary angiogram is the standard procedure for assessing coronary artery disease by visualizing abnormalities within the coronary arteries.
159
What is coronary angioplasty?
Coronary angioplasty is a medical procedure that involves inserting a catheter with a balloon into an occluded site of a coronary artery to widen the artery and restore blood flow.
160
What happens to blood flow in the coronary arteries during heart contraction (systole)?
Blood flow in the coronary arteries is restricted during systole due to the mechanical contraction of the heart muscle which compresses the coronary vessels.
161
Why does cardiac tissue contain a high number of mitochondria?
Cardiac tissue contains a high number of mitochondria to meet its high energy demands for continuous and steady aerobic respiration required for constant heart function.
162
What are atherosclerotic plaques and how do they affect blood flow?
Atherosclerotic plaques are fatty deposits that accumulate in the walls of arteries leading to narrowing of the artery lumen which impairs blood flow and can result in heart disease.
163
What is an angiogram?
An angiogram is an X-ray picture that uses a contrast dye to visualize blood vessels especially coronary arteries.
164
What conditions can an angiogram reveal in the coronary arteries?
An angiogram of the coronary arteries can reveal narrowing due to atherosclerotic plaques the presence of a thrombus or spasm.
165
What is the standard method for assessing coronary artery disease?
The standard method for assessing coronary artery disease is a coronary angiogram.
166
What is the process of coronary angioplasty?
Coronary angioplasty involves inserting a catheter with a balloon into the occluded site of a coronary artery and inflating the balloon to open the artery.
167
What is the role of stents in coronary angioplasty?
Stents are often inserted to support the section of the coronary artery that has been opened during angioplasty.
168
What is Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)?
Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG) is a common type of open-heart surgery that involves grafting a vessel taken from the patient onto the aorta to bypass a narrowed coronary artery.
169
Why is CABG surgery used?
CABG surgery is used to improve blood flow to the heart muscle especially when the coronary arteries are significantly narrowed or blocked.
170
What vessels can be used for grafting in CABG?
Common vessels that can be used for grafting in CABG include the saphenous vein from the leg and the internal mammary artery from the chest.
171
What are the potential complications of coronary angioplasty?
Potential complications of coronary angioplasty include bleeding infection allergic reactions to the contrast dye and re-narrowing of the artery (restenosis).
172
What is atherosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis is a condition where the arteries become narrowed and hardened due to the buildup of plaque which can lead to cardiovascular diseases.
173
What is the term ‘thrombus’?
A thrombus is a blood clot that can obstruct blood flow in a vessel contributing to coronary artery disease.
174
What is the goal of coronary angioplasty and CABG?
The goal of both coronary angioplasty and CABG is to restore proper blood flow to the heart muscle to prevent damage and improve heart function.
175
What factors may lead to the need for CABG?
Factors that may lead to the need for CABG include severe coronary artery disease multiple blocked arteries or failure of previous angioplasty.
176
What is the difference between angioplasty and CABG?
Angioplasty is a minimally invasive procedure using a balloon to open blocked arteries while CABG is an open-heart surgical procedure where new paths for blood flow are created by grafting vessels.
177
Describe the main steps involved in performing CABG surgery.
1. Patient is placed under general anesthesia. 2. A surgeon makes an incision in the chest to access the heart. 3. A blood vessel is harvested for the graft. 4. The heart may be temporarily stopped and a heart-lung machine is used. 5. The surgeon attaches the graft to the coronary artery and aorta to bypass the blockage.
178
What are the risks associated with CABG surgery?
Risks include infection bleeding blood clots heart attack stroke and complications related to anesthesia.
179
How is success measured after CABG surgery?
Success after CABG is typically measured by improved blood flow to the heart reduced angina symptoms and increased exercise tolerance.
180
What is grafting of a vessel in the context of coronary artery disease?
Grafting of a vessel known as a bypass graft involves taking a blood vessel from the patient and attaching it to the aorta to create an alternative route for blood flow to bypass a narrowed coronary artery.
181
What is the significance of the term 'myogenic regulation' in cerebral circulation?
Myogenic regulation refers to the intrinsic ability of cerebral vessels to automatically dilate or constrict in response to changes in blood pressure ensuring consistent cerebral blood flow.
182
How do cerebral vessels respond to a drop in blood pressure?
When blood pressure falls cerebral vessels automatically dilate to maintain adequate blood flow to the brain.
183
How do cerebral vessels respond to an increase in blood pressure?
When blood pressure rises cerebral vessels automatically constrict to protect the brain from potential damage due to excessive blood flow.
184
What effect does decreased pH of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) have on cerebral arterioles?
A decrease in pH of cerebrospinal fluid typically due to a build-up of carbon dioxide (CO2) causes dilation of cerebral arterioles.
185
What is the effect of increased pH of cerebrospinal fluid on cerebral blood vessels?
Increased pH of cerebrospinal fluid associated with a drop in CO2 levels causes constriction of cerebral blood vessels.
186
What are the key features of cerebral blood flow?
Cerebral blood flow is held constant at about 750 mL/min and is primarily regulated by intrinsic mechanisms of autoregulation allowing the brain to maintain stable blood supply despite variations in systemic blood pressure.
187
What is 'cutaneous flow' and how is it regulated?
Cutaneous flow refers to blood flow to the skin which is predominantly regulated by extrinsic mechanisms and can show significant variations with the skin being capable of handling low rates of blood flow.
188
What is the relationship between brain activity and blood flow?
During periods of heightened brain activity the most active regions of the brain require increased blood flow to meet metabolic demands a concept known as metabolic regulation in cerebral circulation.
189
What implications does the concept of autoregulation have on the management of conditions like hypertension?
Because autoregulation helps maintain constant cerebral blood flow care must be taken when managing hypertension to avoid causing cerebral ischemia or damage due to excessive pressure changes.
190
What is hyperemia due to metabolic changes?
Hyperemia due to metabolic changes refers to the increased blood flow to a particular region as a response to the increased metabolic activity in that area such as during neuronal activity.
191
What substances do active neurons release that cause vasodilation?
Active neurons release potassium ions (K+) adenosine nitric oxide (NO) and other chemicals that cause vasodilation leading to increased blood flow.
192
What role do astrocytes play in neurovascular coupling?
Astrocytes may secrete prostaglandin E2 and carbon monoxide (CO) that contribute to the vasodilatory response during neurovascular coupling.
193
What is neurovascular coupling?
Neurovascular coupling is the process where increased neuronal activity results in increased blood flow to that region known as functional hyperemia providing more oxygen and glucose as needed by the active neurons.
194
How does the skin's blood flow help with thermoregulation?
The skin helps control body temperature by regulating blood flow. Increased blood flow to capillaries in the skin releases heat when body temperature rises while vasoconstriction helps retain heat when temperatures are low.
195
What happens to cutaneous blood flow during increased body temperature?
During increased body temperature blood flow to the capillaries in the skin increases allowing for heat dissipation through the skin.
196
What physiological change occurs to aid in heat loss from the skin?
In addition to increased blood flow sweat is produced by sweat glands to aid in heat loss from the body.
197
What is the effect of cold temperatures on skin blood flow?
Cold temperatures activate sympathetic vasoconstriction which reduces blood flow to the skin to maintain body heat.
198
What are the consequences of prolonged vasoconstriction in cold temperatures?
Prolonged vasoconstriction can lead to decreased metabolic activity in the skin which may result in frostbite due to insufficient blood supply.
199
What is the relationship between metabolic activity and cerebral blood flow?
There is a direct relationship where increased metabolic activity in neurons leads to increased cerebral blood flow to provide necessary nutrients and oxygen.
200
What happens to cutaneous blood flow when ambient temperatures are low?
Vasoconstriction of arterioles occurs to keep heat in the body.
201
What activates sympathetic vasoconstriction in response to cold temperatures?
Cold temperatures activate sympathetic vasoconstriction to conserve body heat.
202
Why is vasoconstriction in the skin tolerated during cold exposure?
It is tolerated due to decreased metabolic activity in the skin.
203
What can occur as a result of prolonged peripheral tissue vasoconstriction in cold temperatures?
Frostbite can occur when peripheral tissue dies due to prolonged vasoconstriction.
204
List the main factors that affect blood pressure.
Blood volume stroke volume total peripheral resistance and heart rate.
205
What effect does an increase in blood volume stroke volume total peripheral resistance or heart rate have on blood pressure?
An increase in any of these factors will increase blood pressure.
206
How does vasoconstriction of arterioles affect blood pressure in the arteries?
Vasoconstriction of arterioles raises blood pressure upstream in the arteries.
207
What is the relationship expressed by the equation Arterial blood pressure = Cardiac output x Total peripheral resistance?
Arterial blood pressure is directly related to cardiac output and total peripheral resistance.
208
What is the effect of vasoconstriction on blood pressure?
Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure.
209
Why is capillary blood pressure low compared to other blood vessels?
Capillary blood pressure is low due to the large total cross-sectional area of capillaries.
210
What components contribute to cardiac output in relation to blood pressure?
Heart rate and stroke volume contribute to cardiac output which in turn affects blood pressure.
211
What is sectional area and how does it relate to blood pressure in arteries?
The sectional area refers to the total cross-sectional area of blood vessels. In arteries high blood pressure is observed due to a small total cross-sectional area which means that blood is flowing through a narrower space. This results in increased resistance and higher pressure within the arteries.
212
How do the kidneys regulate blood pressure?
The kidneys regulate blood pressure by controlling blood volume which impacts stroke volume. By adjusting the amount of water and electrolytes excreted or reabsorbed the kidneys can influence the overall blood volume and thus affect blood pressure.
213
What role does the sympathoadrenal system play in blood pressure regulation?
The sympathoadrenal system stimulates vasoconstriction of arterioles which raises total peripheral resistance. This mechanism contributes to an increase in cardiac output and thus regulates blood pressure.
214
What is the baroreceptor reflex?
The baroreceptor reflex is a physiological response to changes in blood pressure. It is mediated by baroreceptors which are stretch receptors located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses. This reflex helps maintain stable blood pressure.
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How do baroreceptors respond to increased blood pressure?
When blood pressure increases baroreceptors are stretched more than usual which leads to an increase in action potentials sent to the vasomotor and cardiac control centers in the medulla oblongata.
216
What is the sensitivity of baroreceptors towards blood pressure fluctuations?
Baroreceptors are most sensitive to drops in blood pressure. They effectively detect changes and initiate reflex responses to restore blood pressure to normal levels.
217
What functions do the vasomotor center and cardiac center serve in blood pressure regulation?
The vasomotor center regulates peripheral resistance by controlling vasodilation and vasoconstriction. In contrast the cardiac center modulates heart rate to adjust cardiac output and maintain blood pressure.
218
Where are baroreceptors located and what is their function?
Baroreceptors are located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses. They function as stretch receptors that detect changes in blood pressure and send signals to the central nervous system to help regulate cardiovascular responses.
219
What physiological adjustments occur when blood pressure drops?
When blood pressure drops baroreceptors reduce action potentials prompting the vasomotor center to cause vasoconstriction and the cardiac center to increase heart rate. These responses work to elevate blood pressure back to normal levels.
220
Explain how increased cardiac output affects blood pressure.
Increased cardiac output which can occur due to increased stroke volume or heart rate raises blood pressure. This is because more blood is being pumped into the arterial system in a given time increasing the pressure exerted on the vessel walls.
221
What receptors are involved in regulating blood pressure and how do they respond to increased blood pressure?
The baroreceptors are involved in regulating blood pressure. Increased blood pressure stretches these receptors which leads to an increase in action potentials sent to the vasomotor and cardiac control centers located in the medulla.
222
What is the role of the vasomotor center in the regulation of blood pressure?
The vasomotor center controls vasodilation and constriction of blood vessels to regulate peripheral resistance which is crucial for maintaining blood pressure.
223
How does the cardiac center contribute to blood pressure regulation?
The cardiac center is responsible for controlling heart rate which is a key factor in regulating overall blood pressure. An increase in heart rate can contribute to an increase in blood pressure and vice versa.
224
Describe the structure of the baroreceptor reflex and its components.
The baroreceptor reflex consists of the following structures: a. Aortic arch and carotid sinus baroreceptors that detect changes in blood pressure. b. The vasomotor and cardiac control centers located in the medulla oblongata that process the signals from the baroreceptors. c. Parasympathetic and sympathetic axons that extend to the heart and blood vessels to modulate their activity in response to detected changes in blood pressure.
225
What occurs in response to a fall in blood pressure within the baroreceptor reflex?
A fall in blood pressure leads to increased sympathetic activity and decreased parasympathetic activity resulting in an increased heart rate and higher total peripheral resistance which helps to raise blood pressure back to normal.
226
What happens during a rise in blood pressure according to the baroreceptor reflex?
During a rise in blood pressure the opposite occurs: there is decreased sympathetic activity and increased parasympathetic activity which results in a decreased heart rate and lower total peripheral resistance helping to lower blood pressure back to normal levels.
227
Why is the baroreceptor reflex important for regulating blood pressure?
The baroreceptor reflex is crucial for quick beat-by-beat regulation of blood pressure particularly when the body changes position such as moving from lying down to standing which can otherwise cause dizziness or fainting if blood pressure is not quickly adjusted.
228
In which part of the nervous system do the baroreceptors transmit signals after detecting changes in blood pressure?
Baroreceptors transmit their signals to the vasomotor and cardiac control centers in the medulla oblongata which are part of the central nervous system.
229
What type of axons are involved in relaying information from the baroreceptors to the heart and blood vessels?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic axons are involved in transmitting information from the baroreceptors to the heart and blood vessels to help regulate heart rate and blood vessel diameter in response to blood pressure changes.
230
What is the instrument used to measure blood pressure?
The instrument used to measure blood pressure is called a sphygmomanometer.
231
How is blood pressure measured?
Blood pressure is measured in mmHg (millimeters of mercury) using a sphygmomanometer.
232
What occurs when the blood pressure cuff is inflated beyond systolic blood pressure?
When the blood pressure cuff is inflated beyond systolic blood pressure it pinches off the brachial artery stopping blood flow.
233
What are Korotkoff sounds?
Korotkoff sounds are the sounds of turbulent flow of blood in the brachial artery that can be heard using a stethoscope during blood pressure measurements.
234
When is the first Korotkoff sound heard during blood pressure measurement?
The first Korotkoff sound is heard at systole when the pressure in the cuff is released.
235
What reading can be taken at the first Korotkoff sound?
A reading of systolic blood pressure can be taken at the first Korotkoff sound.
236
When is the last Korotkoff sound heard during blood pressure measurement?
The last Korotkoff sound is heard when the pressure in the cuff reaches diastolic pressure.
237
What does it indicate when laminar flow returns during blood pressure measurement?
When laminar flow returns there are no sounds indicating that the pressure in the cuff is below diastolic pressure.
238
What is the average blood pressure in adults?
The average blood pressure in adults is 120/80 mmHg.
239
What does taking the pulse measure?
Taking the pulse is a measure of heart rate.
240
What does a health professional feel when taking a pulse?
What the health professional feels when taking a pulse is the increased blood pressure in the artery at systole.
241
What is pulse pressure and how is it calculated?
Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It is calculated by subtracting the diastolic pressure from the systolic pressure. If a person's blood pressure is recorded as 120/80 mmHg the pulse pressure would be 120 - 80 = 40 mmHg.
242
What is mean arterial pressure (MAP) and why is it significant?
Mean arterial pressure is the average pressure in the arteries during one cardiac cycle. It is significant because it is the difference between MAP and venous pressure that drives blood flow into the capillaries allowing for nutrient and gas exchange.
243
How is mean arterial pressure calculated?
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) can be calculated using the formula: MAP = Diastolic Pressure + (Pulse Pressure / 3). Alternatively it can also be expressed as MAP = (Systolic Pressure + 2 * Diastolic Pressure) / 3.
244
Given a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg what is the systolic pressure?
The systolic pressure is the first number in a blood pressure reading. For a reading of 138/72 mmHg the systolic pressure is 138 mmHg.
245
Given a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg what is the diastolic pressure?
The diastolic pressure is the second number in a blood pressure reading. For a reading of 138/72 mmHg the diastolic pressure is 72 mmHg.
246
Given a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg what is the pulse pressure?
The pulse pressure can be calculated by subtracting the diastolic pressure from the systolic pressure. For a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg the pulse pressure is 138 - 72 = 66 mmHg.
247
Given a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg what is the mean arterial pressure?
The mean arterial pressure (MAP) can be calculated using the formula: MAP = Diastolic Pressure + (Pulse Pressure / 3). For a blood pressure of 138/72 mmHg MAP = 72 + (66 / 3) = 72 + 22 = 94 mmHg.
248
What is considered a normal blood pressure range?
A normal blood pressure range is defined as a systolic pressure of less than 120 mmHg and a diastolic pressure of less than 80 mmHg.
249
What is hypertension?
Hypertension is defined as blood pressure that exceeds the normal range. It is indicated by a systolic pressure of 130 mmHg or higher and/or diastolic pressure of 80 mmHg or higher.
250
Explain the significance of understanding pulse pressure in clinical settings.
Understanding pulse pressure is significant in clinical settings as it provides insight into the health of the cardiovascular system. A low pulse pressure may indicate heart conditions such as heart failure or hypovolemia while a high pulse pressure can be associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events.
251
What are the potential health implications of hypertension?
Potential health implications of hypertension include increased risk for heart disease stroke kidney damage and vision loss. Long-term untreated hypertension can lead to serious health complications.
252
What is the relationship between mean arterial pressure and blood flow?
Mean arterial pressure is directly related to blood flow; it represents the average arterial pressure during a cardiac cycle which is necessary to perfuse organs and tissues. Adequate MAP is essential to ensure sufficient blood flow through the arterial system.
253
How does diastolic pressure play a role in determining pulse pressure?
Diastolic pressure is one of the two components used to calculate pulse pressure. A change in diastolic pressure will directly affect the pulse pressure as pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures.
254
What lifestyle changes can help manage hypertension?
Lifestyle changes that can help manage hypertension include maintaining a healthy diet (low in salt saturated fats and sugar) regular physical activity maintaining a healthy weight limiting alcohol intake not smoking and managing stress.
255
What are the three classifications of hypertension according to the Blood Pressure Classification in Adults?
a. Elevated Stage b. Stage 1 Hypertension c. Stage 2 Hypertension.
256
What is considered Stage 1 Hypertension in terms of blood pressure values?
Stage 1 Hypertension is classified as having a systolic blood pressure between 130-139 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure between 80-89 mmHg.
257
What is considered Stage 2 Hypertension in terms of blood pressure values?
Stage 2 Hypertension is classified as having a systolic blood pressure of 140 mmHg or higher or a diastolic blood pressure of 90 mmHg or higher.
258
What lifestyle modifications are recommended for the management of hypertension?
1. Weight reduction 2. Reduction in dietary fat 3. Increased consumption of vegetables and fruit 4. Reduction in dietary sodium (salt) 5. Engaging in regular aerobic exercise such as brisk walking for at least 30 minutes a day most days of the week 6. Moderation of alcohol consumption.
259
Who should be treated with lifestyle modifications alone for hypertension?
Individuals with Stage 1 Hypertension and an estimated 10-year cardiovascular risk below 10% are recommended to use lifestyle modifications alone.
260
What is the recommendation for individuals with Stage 1 Hypertension and a 10-year cardiovascular risk greater than 10%?
For individuals with Stage 1 Hypertension and a greater than 10% cardiovascular risk the addition of an antihypertensive drug is recommended.
261
What are the guidelines referenced for the prevention detection evaluation and management of high blood pressure in adults?
The 2017 American College of Cardiology - American Heart Association guidelines.
262
What is the significance of the systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings in hypertension classification?
Systolic blood pressure measures the pressure in the arteries when the heart beats and diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure when the heart is at rest between beats. Both readings are crucial for classifying the severity of hypertension and determining treatment.
263
What is the primary goal of lifestyle modifications in the context of hypertension?
The primary goal of lifestyle modifications is to lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of cardiovascular complications.
264
Describe the relationship between blood pressure and cardiovascular risk as indicated by the guidelines.
The guidelines suggest that higher blood pressure levels correspond to increased cardiovascular risk which necessitates more aggressive treatment for those with higher risks.
265
What is considered normal blood pressure according to the guidelines?
Normal blood pressure is defined as under 120 mmHg systolic and under 80 mmHg diastolic.
266
What is the treatment for normal blood pressure?
No drug therapy is indicated for individuals with normal blood pressure.
267
What blood pressure range is classified as prehypertension?
Prehypertension is classified as a systolic blood pressure of 120 to 129 mmHg and a diastolic pressure of less than 80 mmHg.
268
What is recommended for individuals with prehypertension?
Lifestyle modification is recommended for individuals with prehypertension and no antihypertensive drugs are indicated.
269
What constitutes Stage 1 Hypertension?
Stage 1 Hypertension is characterized by a systolic pressure of 130 to 139 mmHg or a diastolic pressure of 80 to 89 mmHg.
270
What are the treatment recommendations for Stage 1 Hypertension?
For Stage 1 Hypertension lifestyle modification and antihypertensive drugs are recommended.
271
What defines Stage 2 Hypertension?
Stage 2 Hypertension is defined as a systolic pressure of 140 mmHg or greater or a diastolic pressure of 90 mmHg or greater.
272
What treatment is indicated for individuals with Stage 2 Hypertension?
Lifestyle modification along with antihypertensive drugs is indicated for individuals with Stage 2 Hypertension.
273
What are the two main classifications of hypertension?
Hypertension can be classified as primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension.
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What is primary or essential hypertension?
Primary or essential hypertension is a result of complex and poorly understood processes with no identifiable secondary cause.
275
What is secondary hypertension?
Secondary hypertension is a symptom of another disease accounting for about 5% of all hypertension cases.
276
What are common examples of conditions that can cause secondary hypertension?
Examples include kidney disease and renal artery disease.
277
What mechanisms are involved in kidney-related hypertension?
Decreased urine formation and secretion of vasoactive chemicals can lead to hypertension.
278
What endocrine factors are associated with secondary hypertension?
Excess catecholamines (such as those from a tumor of the adrenal medulla) and excess aldosterone (such as in Conn's syndrome) can cause secondary hypertension.
279
How does excess catecholamines affect blood pressure?
Excess catecholamines can increase cardiac output and total peripheral resistance contributing to hypertension.
280
What effect does excess aldosterone have on blood pressure?
Excess aldosterone leads to increased salt and water retention which can raise blood pressure.
281
What are the impacts of increased intracranial pressure on the body?
Increased intracranial pressure can damage the vasomotor center in the brain leading to activation of the sympathoadrenal system which can affect cardiovascular function.
282
What is the sympathoadrenal system and what role does it play in the human body?
The sympathoadrenal system is a part of the autonomic nervous system involving the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla. It is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response increasing heart rate blood pressure and glucose metabolism during stress.
283
What are some cardiovascular complications associated with increased intracranial pressure?
Some cardiovascular complications include complete heart block patent ductus arteriosus arteriosclerosis of the aorta and coarctation of the aorta.
284
How does increased stroke volume affect cardiovascular function?
Increased stroke volume leads to a higher volume of blood being ejected from the heart with each contraction which can elevate blood pressure and strain the cardiovascular system especially if combined with decreased distensibility of the aorta.
285
What is essential hypertension and who does it most commonly affect?
Essential hypertension is a form of high blood pressure without an identifiable secondary cause. Most people diagnosed with hypertension fall into this category and it commonly affects adults.
286
What are some potential causes of essential hypertension?
Potential causes may include increased salt intake coupled with decreased kidney filtering ability increased sympathetic nerve activity responses to paracrine regulators from the endothelium and increased total peripheral resistance.
287
What are lifestyle modifications recommended for treating hypertension?
Recommended lifestyle modifications include limiting salt intake reducing smoking and alcohol consumption losing weight and engaging in regular exercise.
288
What types of medications are commonly prescribed to treat hypertension?
Common treatments for hypertension include diuretics (to increase urine formation) beta blockers (to decrease cardiac rate) and ACE inhibitors (to block angiotensin II production).
289
What are Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) and their role?
Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are a class of medications that inhibit the actions of angiotensin II a hormone involved in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance. By blocking its receptors ARBs help to lower blood pressure and reduce strain on the cardiovascular system.
290
What is preeclampsia?
Preeclampsia formerly known as toxemia of pregnancy is a pregnancy complication that affects up to 8% of women globally after the twentieth week of gestation. It is characterized by new onset hypertension and is differentiated from gestational hypertension by organ damage.
291
How does preeclampsia differ from gestational hypertension?
Preeclampsia differs from gestational hypertension in that it involves evidence of organ damage such as to the liver and kidneys in addition to the presence of hypertension.
292
What are the common clinical features of preeclampsia?
Common clinical features of preeclampsia include new onset hypertension potential damage to organs (particularly liver and kidneys) thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) and proteinuria (presence of abnormal amounts of protein in urine).
293
What physiological changes occur in preeclampsia?
In preeclampsia the presence of proteinuria lowers plasma protein concentration leading to decreased oncotic pressure. This results in edema and swelling particularly in the feet legs or hands.
294
What is thrombocytopenia and its relevance in preeclampsia?
Thrombocytopenia is a condition characterized by low platelet count in the blood. In preeclampsia it can occur alongside other symptoms and is a marker of potential organ dysfunction and severity of the condition.
295
What is proteinuria and why is it significant in preeclampsia?
Proteinuria refers to the presence of excess proteins in the urine which is significant in preeclampsia as it indicates kidney dysfunction and contributes to the diagnosis and assessment of the severity of the condition.
296
What are the potential consequences of decreased oncotic pressure in preeclampsia?
Decreased oncotic pressure in preeclampsia can lead to increased fluid leakage from blood vessels into surrounding tissues resulting in edema which is the swelling of the feet legs or hands due to fluid accumulation.
297
What is the definition of swelling in the context of circulatory issues?
Swelling of the feet legs or hands is a symptom related to the circulatory system often indicative of fluid retention or inadequate circulation.
298
What is Circulatory Shock?
Circulatory Shock occurs when there is inadequate blood flow and/or oxygen utilization in the tissues leading to various symptoms and potentially resulting in death.
299
What are the symptoms of Circulatory Shock?
Symptoms of Circulatory Shock arise from inadequate blood flow or the body's compensatory mechanisms of the circulatory system to maintain perfusion.
300
What is Hypovolemic Shock?
Hypovolemic Shock is a type of circulatory shock caused by low blood volume usually due to injury dehydration or burns.
301
What are the characteristics of Hypovolemic Shock?
Hypovolemic Shock is characterized by decreased cardiac output and blood pressure with blood being diverted to the heart and brain at the expense of other organs.
302
What compensatory mechanisms occur during Hypovolemic Shock?
Compensatory mechanisms during Hypovolemic Shock include the baroreceptor reflex which increases heart rate raises peripheral resistance resulting in cold clammy skin and low urine output.
303
What is Septic Shock?
Septic Shock is a severe condition characterized by dangerously low blood pressure (hypotension) resulting from an abnormal immune response to infection (sepsis).
304
What causes the vasodilation in Septic Shock?
In Septic Shock bacterial endotoxins induce the production of nitric oxide (NO) causing widespread vasodilation and a drastic fall in blood pressure.
305
What is the mortality rate for Septic Shock?
The mortality rate for Septic Shock is high ranging from 50% to 70%.
306
What are the potential outcomes of untreated Circulatory Shock?
Without timely intervention Circulatory Shock can lead to organ failure and death due to prolonged inadequate blood flow and oxygenation in the tissues.
307
What is anaphylactic shock and what causes it?
Anaphylactic shock is a severe allergic reaction that occurs due to the production of histamine leading to vasodilation and a significant drop in blood pressure.
308
What causes neurogenic shock?
Neurogenic shock occurs due to spinal cord injury or anesthesia resulting in a loss of sympathetic stimulation which leads to vasodilation and hypotension.
309
What is cardiogenic shock and what causes it?
Cardiogenic shock is caused by significant myocardial loss typically due to conditions like myocardial infarction where the heart fails to pump effectively resulting in inadequate blood flow to the body.
310
What is Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)?
CHF occurs when the cardiac output is insufficient to meet the blood flow requirements of the body leading to inadequate circulation and symptoms of heart failure.
311
List some causes of Congestive Heart Failure (CHF).
Causes of CHF include myocardial infarction congenital defects hypertension aortic valve stenosis and disturbances in electrolyte levels such as potassium (K) and calcium (Ca).
312
What are the similarities between Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) and hypovolemic shock?
Both CHF and hypovolemic shock share similar symptoms and physiological responses which include signs of inadequate perfusion such as fatigue shortness of breath and possible vesicular lung sounds.
313
What happens in left-sided congestive heart failure?
In left-sided congestive heart failure there is a rise in left atrial pressure which leads to pulmonary congestion and edema causing symptoms such as shortness of breath and difficulty in breathing.
314
What happens in right-sided congestive heart failure?
Right-sided congestive heart failure leads to an increase in right atrial pressure resulting in systemic congestion and edema causing symptoms such as swelling in the legs and abdomen.
315
What are compensatory responses in relation to hypovolemic shock?
Compensatory responses similar to hypovolemic shock include the activation of the sympathoadrenal system which stimulates an increase in cardiac rate and contractility of the ventricles as well as the constriction of arterioles.
316
What physiological changes occur due to the activation of the sympathoadrenal system?
The activation of the sympathoadrenal system leads to increased cardiac rate enhanced contractility of ventricular muscle and narrowing (constriction) of arterioles thereby increasing systemic vascular resistance.
317
What role does renin secretion play in compensatory responses?
Renin secretion increases to activate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) which causes the body to retain salt and water aiding in the restoration of blood volume and pressure.
318
What is the primary result of chronic compensation for low cardiac output?
The primary result of chronic compensation for low cardiac output is the development of congestive heart failure characterized by chronically low cardiac output and compensatory mechanisms that eventually can lead to heart dysfunction.
319
How does elevated blood volume relate to heart failure?
Elevated blood volume occurs as a compensatory mechanism to maintain perfusion in response to low cardiac output but can lead to increased workload on the heart and exacerbate heart failure.
320
What are the implications of ventricular dilation and hypertrophy in congestive heart failure?
Dilation and hypertrophy of the ventricles are adaptations to chronic volume overload which allow the heart to accommodate higher volumes but eventually results in decreased cardiac efficiency and function.
321
What does 'work overload on the heart' signify in the context of congestive heart failure?
Work overload on the heart signifies that the heart has to exert more effort than normal to pump blood which can lead to further deterioration of heart function and worsening of congestive symptoms.
