animism
the belief that living and nonliving objects possess a spirit or soul
preservationalist
parks and public lands should preserve wild nature in its pristine state
conservationalist
public resources should be used and managed in a sustainable fashion to provide the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people
environmental ethics
studies the moral relationship of humans to the environment and its nonhuman contents
virtue ethics
an action is right if it is motivated by virtues, such as kindness, honesty, loyalty, and justice
consequence-based ethics
emphasizes the importance of outcomes; right and wrong are defined in terms of pleasure or pain, benefit or harm, and satisfaction or dissatisfaction
utilitarianism
an example of consequence-based ethics that defines right actions as those that deliver the greatest good to the greatest number
duty-based ethics
the rightness or wrongness of actions should be determined by a set of rules or laws
intrinsic value
a person, organism, or object has value as an end unto itself
instrumental value
a thing that has value as a means to some other end
anthropocentric ethics
assigns intrinsic value only to humans; defines right actions in terms of outcomes for human beings
biocentric ethics
argues that the value of other living things is equal to the value of humans
ecocentric ethics
places value on communities of organisms and ecosystems
deep ecology movement
all elements of the environment have equal intrinsic value because we are the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat
ecofeminism
what is seen as feminine concerns for interrelationships among humans, nonhuman life, and the environment
environmental justice
seeks to ensure that in the management of natural resources and the environment people are treated fairly regardless of race, gender, or economic status
economic system
the institutions and interactions in a society that influence the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
subsistence economy
a society meets its needs from its environment without accumulating wealth
market economy
the production and consumption of goods and services take place in markets guided by prices based on a system of currency
free market economy
the government does not influence the marketplace with subsidies, taxation, or regulation
planned economy
the government regulates the prices of goods and services and the level of production
profit
the difference between the cost to produce a commodity and its price in the marketplace
neoclassical economic theory
the determination of the price and production of goods and services through the interaction of supply and demand
economies of scale
the cost per unit of a good or service declines as the level of production increases
economic value
the price that consumers are willing to pay for a commodity
discount rate
the rate at which economic value declines with time
opportunity cost
equal to the economic value of the best alternative use of money
externalities
costs and benefits associated with the production of a commodity that affect people other than buyers and sellers
limited resources
individual commodities that are not infinitely available or easily interchangeable with other goods and services
marginal value
the difference in people’s willingness to pay for one action compared to an alternative
travel-cost valuation
the amount of money that people are willing to pay for transportation and lodging to visit such places
hedonic valuation
the difference in the market price of real estate that is affected by different environmental alternatives
contingent valuation
the value of an ecosystem service by surveying people’s willingness to pay
natural capital
all of Earth’s resources that are necessary to produce the ecosystem services on which we depend
ecological valuation
determined by the potential cost of the loss or degradation of an ecosystem service
gross domestic product (GDP)
the total value of goods and services produced by the citizens of a country divided by its population size
genuine progress indicator (GPI)
the GPD plus or minus the economic value of enhancements or degradations to the environment
policy cycle
a series of steps governments typically to develop and revise policies
environmental policies
guide decisions and actions that influence environmental conditions or processes
regulatory mandates
set legal standards for actions
incentives
encourage action by offering something appealing
market-based policies
use economic markets to guide actions
cap and trade
a market-based policy in which a regulatory limit, or cap, is set on an action; rights to exceed that limit are traded in markets
volunteerism
work performed freely on behalf of a community
precautionary principle
policymakers must agree on a “reasonable” risk for human health and the environment
tragedy of the commons
when people compete for shared, limited resources, such as fish in a public lake
regulations
specific rules that establish standards for performance, programs to ensure compliance, and protocols for enforcement
case law
various decisions made by the individual courts