Chapter 2A & Chapter 2B Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
What is a monophyletic tree?
A
It is a set in a phylogenetic tree that contains a single organism and all of its descendants.
2
Q
What is a polyphyletic tree?
A
This is a set where organsims from clades are selected although they do not have a common ancestor.
3
Q
What is a paraphyletic tree?
A
It is a set in a phylogenetic tree where a common ancestor and almost all of its descendants are chosen.
4
Q
What is a blastula?
A
This is a hollow cell of blastomeres that animal cells originate from after fertilization through cleavage.
5
Q
What is a chemoheterotroph?
A
These are organisms that attain different chemical sources and feed off of them.
6
Q
What is an autotroph?
A
This is an organism that is able to synthesize its own food.
7
Q
What is a tight junction?
A
These are found in invertebraes and are regions where cell membranes connect to each other.
8
Q
What are desmosomes or anchor junctions?
A
These are junctions that attach to stretching muscles and consist of cells that adhere to mass.
9
Q
What are gap junctions?
A
These are direct channels that allow the flow of ions and small molecules and lead to electricity.
10
Q
Would organisms with a cell wall be good predators?
A
No, because the cell wall hinders mobility and the ability to bring down food.
11
Q
How do animals that are sessile attract prey?
A
1.) Symbiosis
2.) Filter feeding
3.) Ambush
12
Q
How are organisms classified?
A
- Genetics
- Morphology
- Behaviour
- Physiology
13
Q
What is the Linnaeous system?
A
This was a taxonomical hierarchy of organisms ranging from domain (broad) to species (specified) and the closer you get to the species level the more similar the organisms get.
14
Q
What is bilateral symmetry?
A
This is when an organism can be split in half, has 3 layers the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, also it allows for cephalization.
15
Q
What is cephalization?
A
Having the senses condensed in an area.
16
Q
What are protosomes?
A
These are bilateral organisms that have their first opening as their mouth.
17
Q
What are deuterosomes?
A
These are bilaterial organisms that have their first opening as their anus.
18
Q
What is the ectoderm?
A
This is the exterior layer.
19
Q
What is the endoderm?
A
This consistutes the internal organs such as the GI or digestive tract.
20
Q
What is the mesoderm?
A
This is the layer of muscles tissues that coordinate the rest of the body system.
21
Q
What is the formatting for the naming?
A
The genus name is always capitalized, italicized, or underlined.
22
Q
What is a pseudocoelomate?
A
This is known as a false fluid filled cavity that lies between the endoderm of the gut and the mesodermal structure.
23
Q
What are acoelomates?
A
These are organisms that do not have a coelem thus they lack a fluid filled cavity.
24
Q
What is a coelom?
A
It is a fluid filled cavity of the body that separates the internal organs from the endoderm.
25
How do sponges get their food?
The sponges have a lining called the spongeocoel which consists of porocytes where the water comes in through and passes by the occulum which has sensory cilia and when there is an uptake of water there is a current that takes food in.
26
What is the purpose of ejecting the nematocyst for a cnideria?
The nematocysts are curled up in the cnidocytes and when stimulated it is ejected as a way to attach on to another organism and attempt to prey on it.
27
What is the medusae?
This is the upper pointy half of the cnideria which provides mobility.
28
What is the polyp?
This is the lower pointy half of the cnideria which provides sessility.
29
What is the rotifera's corona?
This is a crown of cilia that creates a whirmwhole of food or water and pulls it into the mouth of the organism.
30
How do mollusca create a shell?
They have a structure called the mantle which secretes calcium carbonate to generate the shell.
31
What is the scolex of an annelida?
These are hooks or links that the tapeworm uses to attach itself to the structure and the body of the host so it can feed off of it.
32
What is ecdysis?
This is the process of the ecdysozoans shedding their layer of chitin that protects them but hinders their growth.
33
When are the ecdysozoans the most vulnerable?
When their chitin armor is shedding.
34
What is the point of an arthropods exoskeleton?
- Protection
- Hydration
- Connect limbs/muscles
35
What are the 3 main clades of the deuterostomes?
1.) Phylum enchinodermata
2.) Phylum hemichordata
3.) Phylum chordata
36
Why is the enchinodermata considered bilateral?
Even though the adult enchinodermata is not bilateral the young is.
37
What is the water vascular system and tube feet?
There is a short tube that connects to the ring canal which surrounds the esophagus and the ring branches into 5 arms each canal is connected to tube feet that protrude through holes in the plates.
38
What are the 4 characteristics of the chordata?
1.) Notochord
2.) Dorsal nerve cord
3.) Pharyngeal gill slits
4.) Segmented muscles with the post-anal tail
39
Humans do not have pharyngeal gill slits?
Yes, we did in the embryonic phase.
40
What are pedcellariae?
These are small pincers at the base of the spine that help the sea stars remove debris.
41
What is the notochord?
This is a flexible rod that develops from the mesoderm dorsal to the digestive system.
42
What are the gill slits for?
This is the paired opening system where water passes in it is carried to a large space and then food is pushed in and waste is pushed out.
43
How do urochordata regulate their functions?
Water passes in through the gills into the atrium and then waste passes out through the atrial siphon.
44
How do cephalochordata regulate their functions?
Water passes in through the gills into the atrium and then waste passes out through the atriopore.
45
What is a vertebrae?
An organism with a backbone or spine.
46
What is an organisms genome?
The entirety of its DNA all of the chromosomes it posssesses and the DNA sequence is identical in every cell of that organism.
47
What leads to diverse phenotypes?
Different genes being turned on or off during the transcription phases.
48
What is the difference between Hemp and Cannabis?
Cannabis contains higher quantities of THC which get you high while hemp is a seed that does not have THC.
49
What would happen if the common ancestor between the plants and animals is where the plastid arose?
Then animals would have chloroplasts and would be green.
50
Are plants sessile?
Most but those that can move do so very slowly.
51
What are the 3 reasons of why we classify organisms?
1.) To understand diversity
2.) Organisms can be grouped together based on traits
3.) Evolutionary lineage information
52
Why study flies/weed?
Although the organisms themselves are different they can be used for research.
53
what does multicellularity lead to?
The specialization of cells into tissues => organs
54
Why is understanding organisms important?
For the sake of research and determining groups.
55
What are the common traits of almost all land plants?
- Eukaryotes
- Almost all are photoautotrophs
- Multicellular
- Sessile or stationary
- Cell walls
- Alternation of generations life cycle
- Embryo (sporophyte) retained on the gametophyte tissue
56
Are all plants photoautotrophs?
No, all plants do contain plastids however some lack chlorophyll although they do not all photosynthesize for example the monotropa uniflora.
57
What is the primary cell wall?
It consists of cellulose and is common to all plants, surrounds the plasma membrane, and it is rigid yet flexible.
58
What is the secondary cell wall?
It consists of lignin which anchors the cellulose fibres and is found in the xylem and the sclerenchyma.
59
What is the most common misconception?
The cell wall provides the rigidity to the plant cell.
60
What is hypertonic?
There is more water outside then inside the vacuole = plasmolyzed state.
61
What is isotonic?
When there is almost a balance of the amount of water inside the vacuole and outside = flaccid.
62
What is hypotonic?
When there is more water inside the vacuole then outside the vacuole = turgid.
63
What is the difference between plant and animal life cycles?
- Animals have 1 free living diploid individual
- Gametes are not free living
- The egg and sperm are not multicellular organisms
64
What is the Alternation of Generations in plants?
Sporophyte => Spores => Gametophyte => Gametes => Zygote => Sporophyte
65
What is a sporophyte?
A diploid multicellular organism.
66
What is a spore?
When the sporophyte undergoes meiosis and leads to a haploid and unicellular seed.
67
What is a gametophyte?
When the spore undergoes mitosis and forms a haploid and multicellular organism.
68
What is a gamete?
When the gametophyte undergoes mitosis and the result is a haploid and multicellular organism.
69
What is a zygote?
When the gametes fuse and fertilization occurs which then undergoes mitosis to form the sporophyte again.
70
What 2 elements classify plants?
1.) Vasculature
2.) Seeds
71
What is the vasculature system?
The system whereby the plants attain their nutrients and water it is similar to a circulatory system in an animal.
72
What does the vascular system do?
It is a network of various bundles and systems that work together to supply the plant with water and nutrients.
73
What is the vascular system similar to in animals?
The circulatory system.
74
What are the components of the vascular system?
- Xylem
- Phloem
- Parenchyma cells
- Fibre cells = Parenchyma/Sclerenchyma cells
75
What is the xylem?
These are water conducting cells.
76
What are phloem?
Phloem cells transport sugar and other solutes.
77
What does the lignin do for the xylem?
The xylem has the secondary cell wall which contains lignin so it strengthens it.
78
What is lignin?
It is the second most abundant polymer after cellulose, which is hydrophobic and aromatic, makes vegetables cruchy, and harder to degrade.
79
What is the greatest advantage of having vasculature?
Allowed for the increased height of plants to dominate the land plants ex., tree.
80
Where is the xylem?
On the inside.
81
Where is the phloem?
On the outside.
82
Where does 90% of the water in plants go?
It is transpired through the stomata of the leaves.
83
As plants evolved overtime what happened?
The plants were spending less time in the haploid phase and increasing the amount of time in the diploid phase. This occurred because the plant was then able to reduce the impact of genetic load.
84
What is genetic load?
This is the build up of deleterious or loss of function mutations which hinder the organism.
85
Is there a fitness advantage betweent the haploid and diploid phase?
No.
86
What do the brophytes lack?
- Xylem
- Phloem
- Parenchyma
87
What are the poikilohydrics?
That are bryophytes which lack control over internal water regulation.
88
What phase do bryophytes primarily spend their life cycle in?
The haploid phase
89
What is the bryophyte life cycle?
- Zygote = diploid undergoes mitosis forms the sporophyte
- The sporophyte forms the spores which is on the sporanga or sporangeum through meiosis
- Then the spores germinate into the protonema
- The protonema forms budlike masses
- The buds undergo mitosis to form the gametophytes
- The gametophytes combine their sex cells to fertilize and the cycle begins again.
90
What is the archegonia?
This is where the female gametophyte is and produces the egg cells.
91
What is the antheridia?
This is where the male gametophytes are and the sperm cells are produced.
92
What is a rhizoid?
These are not traditional roots instead of bringing in water and minerals they are instead used for anchoring the organism.
93
What is the biggest advantage of the bryophyte life cycle?
That it requires external source of water for reproduction.
94
What does proteoglycan collagen do?
In the animal cells extracellular matrix (a large network of molecules that provide structure to the cell) it acts as the filler substance between proteins and molecules.
95
What are 3 traits that are specific to opisthokont-animals?
1.) Developing from a blastula
2.) Extracellular matrix molecules such as proteoglycan collagen
3.) Membrane junctions - tight, gap, and anchor junctions
96
What is a physical attribute as a result of lack of mobility in animals?
They lose their heads since they do not requires senses, a brain, or a nervous system to coordinate mobility.
97
What is a homologous structure?
Structures that originated from a common ancestor with a similar structure but a different function.
98
What is an analogous structure?
Structures that did not origniate from a common ancestor so they have a similar function but a different function.
99
What is a blastopore?
This is an opening in the embryo's surface.
100
What is the schizocoelom?
In protostomes when the inner and outer mesoderm form a space forms it is that space between them.
101
What is the enterocoelom?
The space pinched off by an outpocketing in deuterostomes.
102
What is a body segment?
It is when a structure of the body is repeated along the anterior and posterior axis.
103
What is filter feeding?
A form of attaining food where the water is sifted at random for small particles.
104
What are bryophytes classified as?
Seedless non-vascular plants.
105
What are lycophytes and pterophytes classifed as?
Seedless Vascular plants.
106
What is a microphyll?
Only found in lycophytes these are modification of stems where the leaves are narrow and have a strand of vein or vasculature.
107
What is a megaphyll?
These are found in all other vascular plants and are broader leaves.
108
What is the advantage of megaphylls?
The larger surface area allows for more photosynthesis.
109
Why do lycophytes and pterophytes need water?
For the flagellated sperm to get to the egg.
110
What are some defining characteristics of the seedless vascular gametophytes?
There is a hear shaped mature gametophyte at the tip is the antheridia and at the connecting point is the archegonia.
111
What is antheridogen?
This is a substance that stops the mature gamete formation and can allow for an opportunity of cross fertilization.
112
What is a defining characteristics about the sporophytes?
The spores are produced through meiosis by the sporophyte however they are released by the sporangium which is a cluster of spores.
113
What are the 2 types of plants that have seeds and vascular systems?
Angiosperms and gymnosperms
114
What is a defining trait of angiosperms?
The seeds are covered and these are flowering plants.
115
What is a defining trait of gymnosperms?
The seeds are naked and they are cone bearing plants.
116
What are pollen grains?
They produce the non-motile sperms.
117
What is the ovule?
This is the structure that houses the female gametophyte.
118
What is a megaspore?
Produces the female gametophyte - egg inside the ovule.
119
What is the microspore?
Produces the male gametophyte - pollen.
120
What is one primary evolutions now in the seeded vascular plants?
They lack water so there is no flagellated sperm movement through water to get to the egg.
121
Why are there 4 embryo?
The gymnosperm is not confident in its ability to grow into a plant so it has options although only 1 egg will become fertilized and grow the other 3 will degrade similarly 2 sperm will be on their way but only 1 will fertilize the other will degrade.
122
What is the development in gymnosperms?
The sperm is hydrated by a pollen drop which takes the pollen up to the egg and allow for fertilization. The sperm goes up the the pollen tube.
123
What does the ovule house?
The embryo
124
What adaptations to seeds possess?
- Transport long distances
- Remain dormant and protected until ideal conditions occcur which is the greatest advantage over animals
125
What is a trait of modern gymnosperms?
These are woody species such as the conifers.
126
What is the most common type of gymnosperm?
The phylum coniferophyta or coniferous trees which are cone bearing
127
What is efficient about nutrient and water transport in angiosperms?
It contains vessels and tracheids which make it more effective than just the tracheids as in gymnosperms.
128
What is double fertilization?
This is the process of the angiosperms using the 2 sperms that can fertilize an egg. One sperm fertilizes the egg and the other fertilizes a central cell which produces a triploid endosperm.
129
What is the ovary?
This protects the ovule which has the seeds/embryo in it.
130
What is the endosperm?
It is a product of double fertilization and is used to nourish the growing seed and it is also a triploid since it was initially a diploid and the additional pollen made it a triploid.
131
What are flowers?
These have carpels at their center.
132
What is a fruit?
It nourishes and disperses the seed.
133
What is a suspensory cell?
This cell connects the plant cell to the mother cell it is the placenta of the plant.
134
What is chemotaxis?
This is the use of a chemical gradient which attracts only 1 pollen or sperm to the egg.
135
What is a monocot?
Has 1 cotyledon
136
What is a cotyledon?
This is the embryonic part of the seed whereby the seed grows and forms its first leave.
137
What is a eudicot?
This has 2 cotyledons
138
What are 2 traits of monocots?
1.) The veins of the leaves are parallel
2.) Found in grasses
139
What are 2 traits of eudicots?
1.) The veins spread out in a network
2.) Found in fruit trees
140
What are tracheids?
In vascular plants its used to transport water.
141
What are sieve tubes?
These are a type of cells that are found in the phloem of vascular plants.
142
What are companion cells?
They are meant to load and unload sugars into sieve tubes of the plants.
143
What is a reticular vein?
These are veins that network out.
144
What is a phytochrome?
Phytochrome red and phytochrome far red are used to activate or inactivate germination in the presence of certain types of red light.
145
What does far red light do for germination?
The far red light causes the activated red phytochrome to become inactivated far red phytochrome.
146
What does the red light do for germination?
The red light converts the inactive far red phytochrome to be an active red phytochrome.
147
What does darkness do for germination?
The darkness slowly converts the red phytochrome back to the far red phytochrome but some are active.
148
What is coevolution?
When 2 or more species interact closely in the same ecological setting.
149
What are the effects of coevolution?
1.) Plants evolved to attract pollinators
2.) The pollinators evolved for pollination
150
What are 2 common physiological traits between land plants and animals?
1.) Selection pressure that pushed the diversity on land
2.) Finding a solution to drought or dessication there are tolerators such as bryophytes and there are avoiders that have skin/cuticle
