Chapter 7: Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Define aim.
A
A statement of intent for a study.
2
Q
Define hypothesis.
A
A concise testable statement of your expected results.
3
Q
Define operationalisation.
A
Making a variable measurable.
E.g Intelligence- you can use an IQ test.
4
Q
What are the two types of hypotheses?
A
Directional hypothesis.
Non-directional hypothesis.
5
Q
Define ‘directional hypothesis’.
A
States the specific outcome.
Specifies whether one variable is greater, lesser or different from another, rather than just indicating that there’s a difference without specifying its nature.
E.g Exercise increases weight loss.
6
Q
Define ‘non-directional hypothesis’.
A
States that there is a difference or relationship between two variables but does not specify the change in the relationship.
E.g There is a difference in performance between Group A and Group B.
7
Q
When do you use a directional hypothesis?
A
If there is previous research that suggests a result.
8
Q
When do you use a non-directional hypothesis?
A
If there is no known previous research/previous research that produced an outcome.
9
Q
What is a variable?
A
Factors involved in your study.
10
Q
What are the 4 types of variables?
A
Independent variable.
Dependent variable.
Extraneous variable.
Confounding variable.
11
Q
Define the independent variable.
A
The factor we manipulate in order to see a change in the dependent variable.
12
Q
Define the dependent variable.
A
The factor we measure.
We hope to see a change as a result of the independent variable changing.
13
Q
Define the extraneous variable.
A
Any other factor apart from the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable.
E.g noise, illness, mental state, socio-economic factors etc.
14
Q
Define the confounding variable.
A
An extraneous variable that is related to the independent variable in the study.
E.g Harlow’s monkeys, different heads.
15
Q
What is the pilot study?
A
A small scale version of a study.
Allows methodology to be tested- the instructions/ questions will be checked.
Allows researcher to see if the study is viable (practical).
16
Q
What are demand characteristics?
A
Any feature of the study that makes the participant think they know the aim. This will often result in the participant changing their behaviour.
The participant can either facilitate the results, where they give the results the researcher wants, or they can do the ‘Screw-You’ effect, where they do everything to produce ‘wrong’ results.
17
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
Anything the researcher does (deliberately or not) that could affect the outcome of the study.
E.g Spending more time on the conditions of the participants.
This could lead to them interpreting some results differently.
18
Q
What is the solution for demand characteristics?
A
The Single Blind Technique.
- conceal the aim of the research.
19
Q
What is the solution for investigator effects?
A
The Double Blind Technique.
- conceal the aim from the participant and use a researcher who doesn’t know the aim to conduct the research.
20
Q
Define an ‘experimental design’.
A
How participants are placed across conditions (the variations of I.V).
21
Q
What are the three types of experimental designs?
A
Independent groups.
Repeated measures.
Matched pairs.
22
Q
Define independent groups and list its pros and cons.
A
Definition: different participants in each condition.
Pros: use same materials.
No order effects.
Less chance of demand characteristics.
Takes less time.
Cons: may need more participants.
Individual differences.
23
Q
Define repeated measures and list its pros and cons.
A
Definition: all participants in all conditions.
Pros: may need fewer participants.
No individual differences.
Cons: you need different but equal materials.
Order effects.
More time consuming.
24
Q
Define matched pairs and list its pros and cons.
A
Definition: participants matched in advance on key variables and paired across conditions and compare results.
Pros: same as independent groups.
Can reduce individual differences.
Cons: can’t remove all individual differences.
Hugely time consuming.
25
What is a control group?
A condition where the I.V is not manipulated.
26
What are order effects?
When performance in later conditions is affected by the fact that the condition comes later.
2 types: boredom effect.
Practice effect.
27
What are boredom effects?
Participants grow tired of the research.
28
What is the practice effect?
Participants do better in later conditions as they get used to the test style.
29
Explain the solution to order effects.
Counter-balancing.
It reduces order effects, where half the participants complete condition A, then B. Then another half complete condition B, then A. Therefore, they will be balanced across both conditions, reducing the impact on the results.
30
What are experimental methods?
Where the experiment takes place.
31
Name all four experimental methods.
Laboratory experiment.
Field experiment.
Natural experiment.
Quasi experiment.
32
Explain a laboratory experiment with its advantages and disadvantages.
In a lab or controlled setting.
I.V and E.V’s are controlled.
Advantage: high level of control so high internal validity therefore the use of lab experiments to help establish causality between I.V and D.V can remove all E.V’s.
Disadvantage: low external validity because all E.V’s are controlled so the results cannot be applied in any other setting.
33
Explain a field experiment with its advantages and disadvantages.
In the ‘field’/natural setting
I.V’s are controlled, E.V’s are not.
Advantages: offer high external validity- useful in scenarios where causality has been conformed in a lab and you now wish to test in the real world.
Disadvantage: lacks internal validity- too many E.V’s that could impact results.
34
Explain a natural experiment with its advantages and disadvantages.
In a natural setting
I.V is manipulated but not by the researcher.
Advantages: allows you to study events that cannot be studied in a lab for practical/ethical/legal reasons.
High external validity.
Disadvantages: low internal validity.
35
Explain a quasi experiment with its advantages and disadvantages.
In a lab or the field.
I.V is naturally occurring and cannot be manipulated. E.g gender ethnicity, time passing etc.
Advantage and Disadvantage is that it depends on the setting. Where you can have quasi field or quasi lab with the pros and cons listed in the type of experiment that it is.
36
Define meta analysis.
The review of findings of multiple related studies.
37
What are the advantages and disadvantages of meta-analysis?
Advantage: allows analysis of resumes over more data giving greater validity and allowing identification of trends.
Saves time and effort.
Disadvantage: you cannot be sure of the reliability and internal validity of the methods.
38
What is validity?
Whether results are correct.
Validity needs to be reliable.
39
What are the 6 types of validity?
Internal validity.
External validity.
Population validity.
Cultural validity.
Ecological validity.
Temporal validity.
40
What is internal validity?
If the I.V caused the D.V to change then there is internal validity.
41
What is external validity?
If the research is applicable elsewhere then there is external validity.
42
What is population validity?
If you can generalise the findings from your sample to other groups of people then there is population validity.
43
What is cultural validity?
if you can generalise the conclusions of your study to other cultures, then there is cultural validity.
44
What is ecological validity?
If it can be applied to real-life settings then there is ecological validity.
45
What is temporal validity?
If it can be applied to different time periods then there is temporal validity.
46
What is sampling?
Selecting a sample from a population.
47
What is a sample?
An unbias representative cross-section of population. There is no input from the researcher.
A sample should equally represent the population.
48
What is a population?
A group you wish to study.
49
What are the 5 types of sampling?
Random sampling.
Stratified sampling.
Volunteer sampling.
Opportunity sampling.
Systematic sampling.
50
What is random sampling?
The whole of a population have an equal chance of being selected.
A researcher may place names of the population on a piece of paper, place it into a container and remove the needed number of names creating a sample.
51
What are the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling?
Advantage: unbiased
Disadvantage: may probably be unrepresentative.
52
What is stratified sampling?
The division of the population into relevant strata. The strata must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
A researcher may randomly select a proportionate amount from each strata.
53
What are the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling?
Advantage: unbiased and representative.
Disadvantage: time consuming and hard to correctly identify categories.
54
What is volunteer sampling?
Where the researcher advertises for a sample, and selects those who respond.
55
What are the advantages and disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
Advantage: saves time- all responses are from willing participants.
Disadvantage: biased- depends on where you advertise; volunteer bias- only certain people would consider responding therefore unrepresentative.
56
What is opportunity sampling?
Where the researcher approaches people and asks them to take part.
57
What are the advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
Advantage: easy- saves time
Disadvantage: biased- depends on who the researcher approaches.
Unrepresentative- only certain people will be conducted. E.g 60% of all psych research is conducted on US psych students.
58
What is systematic (nth) sampling?
Where the researcher obtains the list of names of the population and selects every nth person until the sample is full.
59
What are the advantages and disadvantages of systematic (nth) sampling?
Advantage: unbiased.
Disadvantage: unrepresentative and not all of the population have a chance of selection.
60
What is random allocation?
Allocating your sample to different conditions.
All the names are in a container and the 1st ‘x’ amount of names will be in condition 1 and the 2nd ‘x’ amount of names will be in condition 2.
61
What are the 5 ethical issues in psychology?
Protection from harm.
Consent.
Deception.
The right to withdraw.
Privacy.
62
What is protection from harm?
It cannot be contravened (breached).
Harm counts as: physical, mental, emotional and neglect.
‘No more than in daily life’- e.g stress can be inflicted onto participant but not more than someone may experience ‘in daily life.’
63
What is consent?
Researchers must make participants aware of anything that might stop them from wanting to take part.
64
Who can give consent?
16 years plus can give consent.
If younger, parental consent is required.
If mentally incapable, parents, doctors etc. can give consent.
65
What is deception?
Where the researcher hides the true aim.
It’s preferred if the researcher avoids deception where possible.
When deception is necessary it cannot breach the protection from harm.
Deception must be revealed at the end of the study (debrief).
66
What is the right to withdraw?
At any time the participant can withdraw from the study.
The researcher has to ask without prejudice if you’d like to withdraw from the study- they cannot prevent them from leaving.
67
What is privacy?
2 types of privacy: anonymity where the identity of ppt is kept hidden.
Confidentiality where the personal details and results of the ppt are kept separate.
Privacy can be waived where a ppt is able to sign off for their identity to be published or exposed.
68
List the 3 possible ways to resolve the ethical issues.
Ethic’s panel.
Debrief.
Presumptive consent.
69
What is the ethics panel?
The study must be approved before it happens.
However they are unable to prevent ethical issues that occur during the study.
70
What is the debrief?
This takes place immediately after the research concludes.
It reveals the aim of the study and any deception.
After having told them the deception, the researcher must extend the offer of withdrawal.
The researcher asks if they have any questions.
They also provide the contact details of themselves, supervising professor and support lines to the ppt.
71
What is presumptive consent?
The researcher asks a group of like-minded individuals of the ppts if they’d be okay with the study.
72
What is an observation?
A researcher identifies a group of people and watches them under a set of conditions without intervening.
73
What is a controlled observation?
What is a naturalistic observation?
What are each of their advantages and disadvantages?
Controlled:
in a controlled setting.
E.g Ainsworth.
Advantage- higher control and therefore high internal validity.
Disadvantage- lower external validity.
Naturalistic:
In the real world.
E.g Rutter.
Advantage- high external validity
Disadvantage- low control and therefore low internal validity.
74
What is a overt observation?
What is a covert observation?
What are each of their advantages and disadvantages?
Overt:
Participants know they are being observed.
Advantage- ethical.
Disadvantage- demand characteristics.
Covert:
Participants are unaware of being observed.
Advantage- natural behaviour.
Disadvantage- unethical (no consent).
75
What is a participant observation?
What is a non-participant observation?
What are each of their advantages and disadvantages?
Participant:
Researcher takes part in the events.
E.g Zimbardo.
Advantage- gain insight.
Disadvantage- observer bias.
Non-participant:
Researcher simply observes.
E.g Ainsworth
Advantage- unbiased.
Disadvantage- lacks insight.
76
What are the two types of observation structures?
Structured
Unstructured.
77
What is a structured observation? Plus its pros and cons.
A pre prepared list of specific events to observe and note down.
The list is behavioural categories. - they must be operationalised, mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Pros- easier; no training required.
Cons- may lack inter-rater reliability.
- may miss events if not listed.
78
What is unstructured observation? Plus pros and cons.
A guide on the topic- the observer notes down any events they may feel are relevant.
Pros- can pick up on all events.
Cons- more difficult.
79
What are the two types of observation sampling techniques?
Event sampling.
Time sampling.
80
What is event sampling? Plus pros and cons.
The observer records all events in a given amount of time.
Pros- you get all information.
Cons- can be hard to maintain focus.
81
What is time sampling? Plus pros and cons.
The observer notes all events that occur in ‘x’ minutes, every ‘y’ minutes.
For example, record from 1:10-1:20 then don’t record from 1:20-1:30, then record from 1:30-1:40.
Pros- useful for longer observations.
Cons- may miss events.
82
What is self report and the two types of self report?
Where the participant provides information themselves.
2 types:
Questionnaire and interview.
83
What is a questionnaire? Plus its pros and cons.
A series of pre-planned questions on a given topic.
It can be open questions or closed questions.
Data collected can be quantitative or qualitative.
Pros- more likely to receive truthful responses due to anonymity.
- quicker, cheaper and easier to obtain large samples.
Cons- may not get them all back/ can’t be sure who filled it in.
- cannot clarify what the questions mean.
- easier to lie.
84
What are open and closed questions? Plus the pros and cons.
The open questions allow a longer ‘open-ended’ response.
Pros- gain insight.
Cons- harder to analyse.
The closed questions limit responses usually to a set answer.
Pros- easy to analyse.
Cons- lacks insight.
85
What is quantitative and qualitative data? Plus pros and cons.
Quantitative data is numerical.
Pros- easy to analyse.
Cons- lacks insight.
Qualitative data uses words and is in a longer format.
Pros- provides insight.
Cons- harder to analyse.
86
What is an interview? Plus its pros and cons.
Where a researcher asks questions directly to the participant- ‘face to face’.
Pros- allows a rapport to develop — may get more truthful responses.
- can clarify meanings of questions.
- can identify non-verbal cues.
Cons- more time consuming.
87
What are the two layouts of an interview.
Structured and Unstructured.
88
What is a structured interview? Plus its pros and cons.
Where there are prepared questions that are read out.
Pros- easier to compare responses
- doesn’t require training.
-replicable
Cons- you can’t build on interesting developments. E.g the interviewee says something worth expanding on yet the interviewer can’t.
89
What is an unstructured interview?
Where there are opening questions after the interviewer asks questions based on previous responses.
Pros- allows development of a relationship/‘rapport’.
-can build on responses and gain insight.
Cons- harder to compare responses.
- requires skill and training.
90
What is primary data? Plus its pros and cons.
Data collected first hand by the researcher… for the purpose of the current investigation.
Pros- data will be specifically for your study.
- not out of date.
- can be assured of its reliability and validity.
Cons- time consuming.
91
What is secondary data? Plus its pros and cons.
Data collected by others and/or from previous research.
Pros- saves time.
Cons- cannot be certain of methodology/reliability.
92
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mean
Median
Mode
93
When are we to use the mean?
1st choice.
Use unless there are outliers.
94
When do we use the median? What is a pro about it?
It’s our 2nd choice.
It’s unaffected by outliers.
95
When do we use the mode? What is a pro about it?
It’s the 3rd choice. We only use when told to.
It’s unaffected by outliers.
96
What are the 2 measures of dispersion?
Range
Standard deviation.
97
What is the range? Plus its pros and cons.
The distance between the top and bottom values in a set of data.
It is customary to add 1 to avoid values where e.g 3 could represent a value of 2.5 or 15 could represent a value of 15.5.
The range is helpful as a further method of describing the data.
Pros- the range is easy to calculate.
Cons- affected by extreme values.
- fails to take account of the distribution of numbers— doesn’t indicate whether most numbers are either closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly.
98
What is standard deviation? Plus its pros and cons.
A more precise method of expressing dispersion.
A measure of the average distance between each data item above and below the mean, ignoring plus or minus values.
Usually worked out using a calculator.
Pros- precise measure of dispersion because it takes all the exact values into account.
- not difficult to calculate if you have a calculator.
Cons- may hide some of the characteristics of the data set (e.g extreme values).
99
What are the 3 displays of data?
Bar chart.
Histogram.
Scatter graph.
100
What are bar charts?
The height of each bar represents the frequency of each item.
Especially suitable for data that is not continuous.
Space is left between each bar to indicate the lack of continuity.
101
What is a histogram?
Similar to a bar chart except that the areas within the bars must be proportional to the frequencies represented.
The verticals axis (frequency) must start at zero.
The horizontal axis must be continuous.
Histograms cannot be drawn with data in categories.
There should be no gaps between the bars.
102
What is a scatter graph?
Used when doing correlational analysis.
103
What are the two types of data distribution?
Normal distribution.
Skewed distribution.
104
What is normal distribution?
A classic bell-shaped curve.
It is the predicted distribution when considering an equally likely set of results.
The mean, mode and median are roughly the same and around the mid-point.
105
What is skewed distribution?
Where population scores are not distributed equally around the mean.
There are two sub-types of skewed distribution; negative skew and positive skew.
106
What is the negative skew?
Mean
107
What is positive skew?
Mean>median>mode
Data is stacked to the left.
The mean is the largest score.
108
What is peer review?
Assessment of scientific work by other experts in the same field.
Usually a number of different peers per new research.
Unpaid and are supposed to ensure research is of a higher quality.
109
what are the 3 main purposes of peer review?
To help ensure only high quality, correct research is published, and is in the correct journals.
To help decide which fields of research are deserving of funding.
To assess the quality of research conducted in university departments.
110
What is the process of research being published?
Research is conducted and written up according to the relevant national council guidelines.
Research is verified and submitted to publishers.
Editors of those publishers send the articles to several peers, who remain anonymous.
Peers feedback on how relevant, accurate and high quality the work is. They may offer recommendations for alterations to be passed onto the author, reject it outright, or accept it, advising the editor in which journal the article should appear in.
111
What are the disadvantages of peer review?
You need an expert- if doing research in a new field, there may not be an appropriate expert to accurately judge your work.
Anonymity allows peers to be biased- you can judge your friend favourably if you recognise its your friend's work, whereas you can judge the work of a rival horribly.
Publication bias- journals like to publish positive results. It's more interesting and makes the journal appear more respectable. However it can distort the truth. E.g there can be 70 articles which can have no link between A & B but 1 article with a link between A & B and the publisher would post that 1 article. This distorts the truth.
They also hate publishing direct replications despite how important those results may be for validation.
Review journals prefer research that goes with existing theory- they would rather not publish something that completely opposes the widely held view.
Can't easily retract already published work- once it's out there, it's out there. Someone has shared it, taken a picture etc.
112
What is psychology and the economy?
Where researchers investigate the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on economic decisions.
113
How is economic psychology applied to the different topics on psychology?
Social Influence- health campaigns which reach the target audience e.g smoking or drinking. This saves NHS money.
Memory- C.I.T; there's more accurate information regarding crimes, so there are fewer mistrials and less money wasted in court/prison.
Attachment- Bowlby's Monotropic Theory on attachment opened the eyes of the world to the importance of emotional care in early child development. This influence has development policies ensuring the healthy development of children to become productive members of society and thus improving the world economy. Prior to Bowlby's research people believed that physical care was all that was necessary.
114
Why is probability and significance used in psychology?
No research can guarantee its results are valid- there is always a possibility the results were by chance, therefore we decide upon an acceptable risk.
In psychology, we use a probability/significance level of 5%. This means we accept results if there is a 5% or less chance of them being down to luck.
115
What is the sign test?
A statistical test to determine the significance of a sample of related items of data.
116
When do we use a sign test?
When looking at paired/related data.
When data is nominal.
When studying a test of difference.
117
What is the procedure of a sign test?
Identify whether the hypothesis is one-tailed (directional) or two-tailed (non-directional).
Using the data, calculate the difference between the two sets of data.
Any difference that is negative, give a '-' and any positive, give a '+'.
Find the calculated value: the lowest value of either pluses or minuses.
118
How do we know whether the data set is significant or not?
Calculate N, which is the number of pairs of data minus any pairs that showed no difference. View value N in the Sign table at either one or two-tailed depending on the hypothesis.
If the calculated value (sign value) is equal to/less than the critical value, the results are significant.
119
To say the results were significant, you quote...
...The calculated value of 'x' was less than the critical value of 'x' at P=0.05/0.01 etc, so the results are significant.
120
What are correlations?
They establish a relationship between 2 variables.
121
What are the 2 types of correlations?
Positive- as one variable increases so does the other.
Negative- as one variable increases, the other decreases.
122
Is it possible to have no correlation?
Yes.
123
In what display of data, are correlations shown in?
Scatter-graphs.
124
How else can correlations be shown?
Using a 'correlation coefficient' number between -1 and +1.
-1 is the perfect negative correlation.
0 is no correlation.
+1 is the perfect positive correlation.
The stronger the correlation is to a +1 or -1, the stronger the relationship.
125
When asked to describe the correlation, what should you mention?
The strength and direction.
e.g either strong or weak and either positive or negative.
126
What are the pros and cons of correlations?
Pros- can establish a relationship between any 2 factors.
Cons- doesn't establish causality.
- cannot work on non-linear relationships.
127
What is content analysis?
Content analysis is a type of observational research where people are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced.
128
What forms of communication can be analyzed in content analysis?
This may include spoken interaction (e.g. a speech or conversation), written forms (e.g. texts or email), and examples from the media (e.g. books, magazines, TV).
129
What is the first stage of content analysis?
Coding is the first stage of content analysis.
130
What type of data can coding produce?
Coding may produce quantitative data.
131
Why is information categorized in content analysis?
Information needs to be categorized into meaningful units, especially when data sets are extremely large.
132
What is an example of quantitative data in content analysis?
For instance, newspaper reports may be analyzed for the number of times derogatory terms for the mentally ill are used, such as 'crazy' or 'mad'.
133
What type of data does thematic analysis produce?
Thematic analysis produces qualitative data.
134
What is a theme in content analysis?
A theme refers to any idea that is recurrent, i.e. it keeps 'cropping up' in the communication being studied.
135
How are themes developed in content analysis?
Themes may be developed into broader categories, such as 'control' or 'stereotyping' of the mentally ill.
136
What are two pros on content analysis?
137
What are two cons on content analysis?
138
What is reliability?
Reliability is a measure of consistency.
139
What is test-retest reliability?
The same test or questionnaire is given to the same person on two or more different occasions.
140
What should happen in test-retest reliability?
The results should be the same (or very similar) each time it is administered.
141
What is inter-observer reliability?
It compares observations from different observers.
142
How can inter-observer reliability be assessed?
By conducting a pilot study to check that observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way.
143
What should observers do in inter-observer reliability?
Observers should watch the same event but record their data independently.
144
How is reliability measured?
Reliability is measured using a correlation.
145
What correlation coefficient indicates reliability?
The correlation coefficient should exceed +0.80 for reliability.
146
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires?
By rewriting questions.
147
How can reliability be improved in interviews?
By providing improved training.
148
How can reliability be improved in experiments?
By using standardised procedures.
149
How can reliability be improved in observations?
By operationalising behavioural categories.
150
What should be done if a questionnaire has low test-retest reliability?
Some items may need to be deselected or rewritten.
151
What is the best way to ensure reliability in interviews?
To use the same interviewer each time.
152
What should be ensured if multiple interviewers are used?
All interviewers must be trained to avoid leading or ambiguous questions.
153
Why are lab experiments often considered reliable?
Because of strict control over many aspects of the procedure.
154
What should behavioural categories be?
Behavioural categories should be measurable and not overlap.
155
What happens if categories are overlapping or absent?
Different observers may use their own judgement, leading to inconsistent records.
156
What is validity?
Validity is whether an observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually ‘out there’ in the real world.
157
What is ecological validity?
Ecological validity refers to whether findings can be generalised from one setting to another, particularly to everyday life.
158
What is temporal validity?
Temporal validity assesses whether findings remain true over time.
159
What does it mean if a test is reliable but not valid?
A test may produce the same result every time but not measure what it is designed to.
160
What is face validity?
Face validity is whether a test looks like it measures what it should.
161
What is concurrent validity?
Concurrent validity assesses whether findings are similar to those on a well-established test.
162
How can validity be improved in experiments?
Validity can be improved by using a control group and standardisation.
163
How can validity be improved in questionnaires?
Validity can be improved by using lie scales and ensuring confidentiality.
164
How can validity be improved in observations?
Validity can be improved by using good categories that are well-defined and operationalised.
165
What is interpretive validity?
Interpretive validity is demonstrated through the coherence of reporting and inclusion of direct quotes from participants.
166
What is triangulation in research?
Triangulation involves using a number of different sources as evidence, such as interview data and personal diaries.
167
What is a basic method to assess validity?
A basic method to assess validity is to check if the test measures what it's supposed to measure 'on the face of it'.
168
What correlation should exceed for a new intelligence test to be considered valid?
The correlation should exceed +.80 for validity.
169
What does a control group do in research?
A control group increases confidence that changes in the dependent variable were due to the independent variable.
170
What do standardised procedures do?
Standardised procedures minimise the impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects.
171
What do lie scales control for?
Lie scales control for the effects of social desirability bias.
172
What is the importance of confidentiality in research?
Respondents are assured that all data submitted is confidential.
173
What are well-defined behavioural categories?
Behavioural categories that are well-defined, thoroughly operationalised, and not ambiguous or overlapping.
174
What is a statistical test used for?
A statistical test is used to determine whether a difference or association/correlation found in a particular investigation is statistically significant.
175
What are the three criteria for choosing a statistical test?
1. Looking for a difference or a correlation/association.
2. Is experimental design related (repeated measures, matched pairs) or unrelated (independent groups)?
3. What is the level of measurement?
176
What statistical tests are used for nominal data and are a test of difference?
Chi-Squared test (independent groups) and Sign test (repeated measures/matched pairs).
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What statistical tests are used for ordinal data and are a test of difference?
Mann-Whitney test (independent groups) and Wilcoxon test (repeated measures/matched pairs).
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What statistical tests are used for interval data and are a test of difference?
Unrelated t-test (independent groups) and Related t-test (repeated measures/matched pairs).
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What tests are used for association or correlation?
Chi-Squared (nominal), Spearman's rho (ordinal), and Pearson's r (interval).
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What is unique about the Chi-Squared test?
Chi-Squared is a test of both difference and association/correlation.
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What defines nominal data?
Nominal data consists of categories where each item can only appear in one category and there is no order. E.g. People naming their favourite football team.
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What defines ordinal data?
Ordinal data is placed in order, but intervals are subjective and variable. Ordinal data lacks precision because it is based on subjective opinion rather than objective measures. E.g. Rating how much someone likes psychology on a scale of 1 to 10.
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What defines interval data?
Interval data consists of units of equal size based on numerical scales. E.g. counting observations in an observational study.
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Why is interval data considered 'better' than ordinal data?
Interval data preserves more detail as scores are not converted to ranks.
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What does the null hypothesis state?
The null hypothesis states there is 'no difference' or 'no correlation' between the conditions.
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What happens if the statistical test is not significant?
The null hypothesis is accepted.
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What does the statistical test determine?
The statistical test determines which hypothesis (null or alternative) is 'true' and thus which we accept and reject.
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What does a significance level of 0.05 mean?
The probability that the observed effect (the result) occurred by chance is equal to or less than 5%.
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What is a Type I error?
The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when the null hypothesis is 'true'.
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What is a Type I error also known as?
An optimistic error or false positive.
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What is a Type II error?
The null hypothesis is accepted but, in reality, the alternative hypothesis is 'true'.
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What is a Type II error also known as?
A pessimistic error or false negative.
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What makes a Type I error more likely?
A Type I error is more likely to be made if the significance level is too lenient (too high, e.g. 0.1 or 10%).
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What makes a Type II error more likely?
A Type II error is more likely if the significance level is too stringent (too low, e.g. 0.01 or 1%), as potentially significant values may be missed.
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What is the purpose of the abstract in psychological investigations?
A short summary (about 150-200 words) that includes the major elements: aims and hypotheses, method/procedure, results, and conclusions.
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What should the introduction of a psychological report include?
A literature review that presents relevant theories, concepts, and studies related to the current study, following a logical progression.
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What details should be included in the method section of a psychological report?
Sufficient detail for replication, including design, sample information, apparatus/materials, procedure, and ethics.
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What should be described in the results section of a psychological report?
A summary of key findings, including descriptive statistics (tables, graphs) and inferential statistics (statistical tests, significance).
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What elements are included in the discussion section of a psychological report?
Summary of findings, relationship to previous research, limitations, and implications of the study.
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What types of sources should be included in referencing?
Referencing may include journal articles, books, websites, etc.
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Can you provide an example of a reference from a journal article?
Flanagan, C. (2016) Experiments in psychology. Psychology Review, 23(2), 23-25
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What is an example of a book reference from a book?
Flanagan, C. and Berry, D. (2016) A Level Psychology. Cheltenham: Illuminate Publishing
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What distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines?
A shared set of assumptions and methods, known as a paradigm.
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What did Kuhn argue about social sciences?
They lack a universally accepted paradigm and are best seen as 'pre-science'.
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What occurs during a paradigm shift according to Kuhn?
A scientific revolution where researchers question the accepted paradigm due to contradictory evidence.
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What is a theory?
A set of general laws or principles that explain particular events or behaviours.
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What is necessary for testing a theory?
The ability to make clear and precise predictions, stating possible hypotheses.
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What is deduction in the context of scientific theories?
The process of deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory.
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What did Popper argue is the key criterion of a scientific theory?
Falsifiability; genuine scientific theories should be testable and open to being proved false.
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How did Popper differentiate between scientific theories and pseudosciences?
Scientific theories can be challenged, while pseudosciences cannot be falsified.
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What is replicability in scientific research?
The ability to repeat findings across different contexts to validate a theory.
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Why is objectivity important in scientific research?
To reduce bias and ensure personal opinions do not influence data or participant behaviour.
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What methods in psychology tend to be the most objective?
Methods associated with the greatest level of control, such as lab experiments.
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What does empiricism emphasize?
The importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience.
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What are good examples of the empirical method in psychology?
The experimental method and the observational method.
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What did early empiricists like John Locke believe about knowledge?
Knowledge is determined only by experience and sense perception.
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What must a theory do to claim to be scientific?
It must be empirically tested.
