Chapter 8- Textbook Flashcards
1
Q
What do those who make a distinction between sex tend to refer to sex as?
A
Being rooted in biology–that is, the tern refers to our physical bodies.
2
Q
What is the definition of sex?
A
A determination of male or female on the basis of a set of socially agreed-upon biological criteria.
3
Q
How did the term gender come about?
A
In the 1970s, feminist theories argued that we needed a ay to distinguish between biology and the social effects of biological differences. AS a result these theorists began using the term gender as a way of directing attention to the social realm.
4
Q
What is the definition of gender?
A
Social distinctions between masculinity and femininity
5
Q
What are intersected individuals?
A
Individuals born with ambiguous genitalia. Also referred to as hermaphrodites, these people tend to have some combination of male and gems genitalia and/or chromosomes
6
Q
Ideas about appropriate gender vary across___and across___.
A
cultures and time
7
Q
What are gender relations?
A
Organizing principles that shape and order interactions between, as well as the relative social importance of, women and men.
8
Q
Throughout most of the world, that which is accosted with___is more highly valued that that which is associated with___.
A
- men
- women
9
Q
What is transgender?
A
An umbrella term for a range of people who do not fit into normative constructions of sex and gender. The term refers to people who live as the gender they identify themselves as being, with our without sex reassignment procedures.
10
Q
What does transgender all include?
A
transsexuals, transvestites, intersex individuals, tombois, and those who do not identify themselves as either male or female.
11
Q
What is transsexual?
A
A person who undergoes sex reassignment, which may include surgeries.
12
Q
What do the terms preoperative, postoperative, and nonoperative refer t?
A
Whether an individual has undergone or is waiting to undergo sex reassignment surgery.
13
Q
Why do some people reject the transsexual label? What do they prefer instead?
A
Because of its connection to medical discourse; these people instead prefer the terms transman or transwoman
14
Q
What is the difference between transexual individuals and transvestites?
A
Transvestites engage in cross-dressing (publicly, privately, or both), but do not necessarily identify as another gender.
15
Q
What is hegemonic masculinity?
A
The normative ideal of dominant masculinity. What men are supposed to strive to achieve. It is the one that is most social endorsed.
16
Q
What is hegemonic masculinity associated with?
A
The traits of aggressiveness, control, strength, drive, ambition, and not valuing women. It is the opposite of everything that is feminine. Associated with whiteness, heterosexuality, and the middle class. Requires men to be successful, capable, and reliable.
17
Q
According to Kimmel, what is central to our idea of masculinity? What results to the continued perpetuation gendered behaviour and stereotypes?
A
- homophobia
- men’s fear of being revealed as frauds (“not man enough”) results in the continued perpetuation of gendered behaviour and stereotypes
18
Q
What is emphasized femininity?
A
The normative ideal of femininity based on women’s compliance with their subordination to men and is oriented to obliging men’s interests and desires. Defined at the level of social relations, emphasized femininity is the most culturally valued form of felinity. It is understood as the ideal that women should
19
Q
What are the characteristics associated with emphasized femininity?
A
Supportiveness, enthusiasm, and sexual attractiveness. Femininity is “performed” in concert with athleticism (think female cheerleaders).
20
Q
What is an excellent example of a “performative” emphasized femininity–one that is performed particularly for heterosexual men?
A
Cheerleading
21
Q
What do girls an women who are involved in athletics often practice?
A
Apologetic behaviour
22
Q
When do gendered expectations being?
A
at birth as parents’ child-rearing practices are deeply gendered.
23
Q
Will mothers respond more quickly to the cries of they baby girls or boys?
A
girls
24
Q
In the first six months of life, ___are more likely than___to be held, rocked, and kissed, but this situation verses after six months. Why
A
boys, girls
-mothers encourage independent and self-initiating behaviour from their sons while encouraging more relationship behaviour from their daughters
25
Studies also show that parents tend to spend more time talking to little__while leaving___alone, and they punish their___more often than they do their ___.
girls, boys, sons, daughters
26
Schools remain a___space and experience.
gendered
27
What contributes to normative constructions of masculinity and femininity in schools?
interactions between teachers and students and curricular materials
28
What happens through hidden curriculum?
Girls continue to learn that they are not as important as boys
29
What has the increasing number of Canadian women graduating with university degrees yet to translate into?
Wide occupational rewards. Women continue to earn less than their male counterparts.
30
both male and female teachers tend to interact more with___in their classes.
boys
31
___are praised when successfully completing a task, whereas___tend to be applauded for presenting an attractive appearance or for being quiet.
boys, girls
32
___are praised for being "congenial" and "neat" while___ are more often praised for their work's intellectual quality.
girls, boys
33
What do gendered interactions at school contribute to?
Girls' dependence and boys' independence.
34
What do male teachers actively negotiate?
Their masculinities and feel the need to establish themselves a embodying a "normalized heterosexualized masculinity."
35
What is Roberta Hall and Bernice Sandler's phrase "chilly climate"?
Women's experiences on university campuses as faculty members call on male students and engage with male students more often. Women's issues are downplayed or trivialized.
36
How are gender divisions reflected in and reinforced by all forms of media?
Depictions of gender in the media have the capacity to create and reinforce normative constructions of femininity and masculinity
37
What is the problem with how the female gender is represented in TV shows?
- Female characters remain manipulative, using helplessness or deduction to get their way and are shows as willing participants in the own objectivization
- The actors who star in these shows are beautiful, most of the characters are heterosexual, and, with a few exceptions, the leading women are white
38
What is the difference between how white and black men are portrayed in TV?
- White men as heroes
| - Black men are frightening, scary
39
What is the difference between how white and black women are portrayed in TV shows?
White women are beautiful and docile
| -Black women are constructed as welfare queens or aggressive with bad attitudes
40
What does reality TV reinforce?
Normative gendered constructions; glorifies competitive, cutthroat behaviour, promotes an ethic of individualism, and effectively deceives audiences into thinking that what they are watching is unfiltered, real, and unedited.
41
How are women in reality TV depicted?
As whiny, emotional, and manipulative backstabbers
42
How are men in reality TV depicted?
Though and interested in women, sex, and drinking.
43
What are the four dominant gender themes in television commercials aired during the Super Bowl?
1. Advertisements for alcohol primary construct men as "losers" who hang out with their male buddies, self-mock, and are ironic about their loser status
2. Male friendships are the centre of most ads
3. Men in these ads are not in committed relationships and are always ready to engage in sexual activity with fantasy (and, hence, unattainable) women.
4. The women in these ads are dichotomously depicted either as "hotties" (sexualized fantasy objects who often humiliate the men) or as "bitches" (wives or girlfriends who undermine men's freedom to enjoy male bonding)
44
Why have "trashy" talk shows come under much scrutiny?
For their portrays of lower-class masculinities and femininities.
45
What is a good way to discern gender as a social practice?
Is to examine gender and our bodies. How we present our bodies, shape them, and how we interpret other bodies. How we feel about our bodies, adorn and display them--influenced by societal messages about how a feminine or masculine body should both look and feel.
46
What is the problem with television programming?
Entire television networks are directed at helping individuals achieve unrealistic beauty ideals. Programs that focus self-improvement thrpughstyle makeovers and body modification. These programs convey the message that moulding one's appearance to more closely resemble dominant constructions of femininity and masculinity will also lead to a better sense of self.
47
What is notable about plastic surgery and its normalization?
Has become normalized as an individualized strategy to achieve a more culturally dominant feminine or masculine appearance in order to become more successful.
48
What do some people argue plastic surgery can be understood as?
empowering as women's liberation is achieved at an individual level of transformation, rather than by questioning and transforming larger societal notions of appropriate gendered bodies.
49
How are female professional athletes and body builders viewed as?
rejecting notions of femininity by conditioning their bodies in ways that make them resemble men's bodies
50
What is notable about men's bodies and the NFL draft?
- "arguably the most prominent [event] in American male culture--male bodies are catalogued, classified, ranked, and valued via an extensive and complex system of quantification"
- physical tests to which the potential draftees submit produce an overall measurement of each player's worth
- Transforms the athletes' bodies into commodities
- It is mainly black men's bodies that are turned into commodities for overwhelmingly white male owners an coaches
51
What is the post-structuralist view of gendered bodies?
Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at. Whoever gazes has power over the object of this gaze.
52
What has been the greatest change in Canada's labour force since the 1960s?
The dramatic increase in the number of employed women, in particular married women with children.
53
In 1901, only___% of women were employed, by 2009 that number had soared to___% (aged 15 and older) representing___% of the labour market.
- 14
- 58
- 48
54
What did the first six moths of 2009mark?
The first time ever that more women than men were employed in the paid labour force.
55
By 2009,___% of women 25 and older were employed in the formal labour market.
76
56
What is the labour force characterized by?
Gender segregation and a gender-based wage gap.
57
What are the two important senses that gender interacts with social class?
1) It provides the ground for segregating occupations into men's and women's jobs
2) Women hold more lower-paying positions than men in the labour force
58
What did industrialization bring for men?
Movement out of agriculture but relative stability in the manufacturing secor
59
What did industrialization bring for women?
A shift from unpaid domestic labour to combining this labour with paid employment in the service industries.
60
What did the changes in the structure of the labour market with industrialization result in?
A greater proportion of part-time workers.
61
The Canadian labour force saw an increase of more than___% in part-time workers between 1976 and 2000.
100
62
___are consistently overrepresented in nonstandard, precarious employment.
women
63
___percent of women stat that they work part-time because they are unable to locate full-tim work.
23
64
___percent of women for part-time due to family obligations compared with less that___percent of men.
39, 5
65
What are most often cited as reasons for women's part-time work?
child-rearing and other family responsibilities
66
In 2006, __in 5 women reported working part-time due to personal or familial responsibilities.
1
67
Women who work in male-dominated industries are___likely than women in other occupations to never marry or to remain childless.
more
68
What influences gender relations and is implicated in many tensions associated with them?
paid work
69
What has been found to exist in all occupation categories
the gendered wage gap
70
In 2009, women working full-time in full-year employment earned on average___% of what men earned. This gendered wage gap is even larger for university-educated women who earned only___% of what university-educated men eared in 2007.
- 75
| - 63
71
What can the wage gap be explained by?
Such factors as occupational segregation, the undervaluing of women's work, the restructuring of women's work by privatization an outsourcing, and the lack of affordable, quality childcare (limiting women's choices for employment).
72
What is the exchange theory?
The assertion that power in relationships is influenced by the resources that a member brings to the relationship.
73
Women do indeed___their housework as they earnings increase, right up to the point where both spouses contribute equally to income. After this "equal" point, women earning more money than their male partners may compensate by performing___of the domestic labour and child-rearing responsibilities than their partners.
- decrease
| - more
74
What is intersectionality?
The simultaneous influence of multiple social relations, including race, gender, ethnicity, and class.
75
What is key to understanding the complex experiences of how relations of gender,r ace, and social class work together to position some individuals as privileged and others as disadvantaged?
An intersectional approach
76
Why are racialized women exposed to greater dangers in the workforce?
As a result of their marginalization in the low-paying insecure jobs, which can include prostitution and the sex trade, and they are at an increased risk of being victims of violence
77
What does taking an intersectional approach acknowledge?
The complexity and messiness of reality. This approach allows us to see that our experiences of masculinity and femininity are not homogenous but, rather, are fractured along other axes of power.
78
What do functionalists argue about gender?
That women dn men perform separate, distinct, specialized, and complementary roles to maintain cohesiveness within families and tin wider society
79
What is the role men play according to functionalism?
An instrumental role: through their paid labour in the public sphere, they provide the money for food, shelter,a and other necessities as well as make decisions for the family unit.
80
What position do women play according to functionalism?
Women are positioned as fulfilling the expressive role: they provide emotional support an nurturance for all members of the family unit.
81
What do the instrumental and expressive roles ensure acc. to functionalism?
Reduce confusion and conflict in the family unit regarding gender expectations and ensure that societal tasks are fulfilled.
82
According to functionalism, which gender is understood as primarily responsible for rearing society's next generation and are understood as being key in reproducing the moral fabric in society?
women
83
What does a conservative approach hold women as directly responsible for?
changes in gender relations that may disrupt th smooth functioning of family life.
84
What happens if the supposed natural order of things is upset (women not being at home to provide care) acc. to functionalism?
May result in higher crime rates, illicit drug use, and incidents of violence--all because women are not at home to provide care.
85
How does conflict theory approach gender?
Using conflict theory to examine gender means redefining Marx's concept of class to refer to groups identified by sex and/or fender. Conflict theorists who take up gender tend to focus their attention on how gender affects one's control of, and access to, scarce resources.
86
Acc. to conflict theory, why did the nuclear family unit appear?
If a man was going to be able to bequeath his wealth to his heir (his son), he required a way to ensure that his heir was actually HIS. Monogamous marriage and men's control of women's sexuality emerged from this need, in capitalist societies, to ensure paternity. The nuclear family also works to sustain men's dominance over women .
87
Why did monogamous marriage as an institution develop acc. to conflict theory?
Out of a need to ensure paternity in order to determine inheritance rights, thus having little to do with notions of romantic love.
88
How does symbolic interactionism approach gender?
Interested in the meanings of male and female and of masculinity and femininity. They argue that gender is created through social interaction mainly through the mechanism of role-taking. In this way, people learn contrasting expectations about gender on the basis of their perceived sex.
89
How do children learn gender-related behaviours acc. to symbolic interactionism?
Through social institutions, such as families, schools, peers, and mass media. The process is based on operant conditioning.
90
What is operant conditioning, acc. to symbolic interactionism?
Whereby positive reinforcements increase socially gender-appropriate behaviours while negative reinforcements decrease behaviours deemed to be socially inappropriate.
91
Why is the symbolic interactionist approach criticized?
For not theorizing social change and for presenting individuals as empty and passive recipients of socialization rather thanks active beings.
92
What is the symbolic interactionist idea of gender as an accomplishment--something we "do"?
"Doing gender" means that we actively create the differences between girls and boys--and that any difference we see are not natural nor are they essential, or biological. through social interaction when we display ourselves as a member of a gender. Gender is the product of social doings of some sort. We can reach do" gender somewhat different, still adhering to normative expectations of femininity and masculinity.
93
What happens once gender differences are socially constructed, acc. to symbolic interactionism?
They can be used to fortify what gets understood or labelled as "the essentialness of gender". We end up taking these constructions for granted, we no longer see them as an outcome of societal interactions or social relations. We assume that gender differences are firmly base din biology. Gender constructions can then become institutionalize din ways that make them appear normal and natural.
94
How does feminist theory approach gender?
Basic premise that men and women in all societies are valued and treated differently and inequitably.
95
How does feminist theory view gender?
As a socially constructed concept that has significant and at times negative consequences in the lives of bot men and women.
96
Which groups endeavours to identify the ways in which institutionalized and internalized gendered norms can limit women's behaviours and opportunities?
feminist theory
97
What kind of approach does contemporary feminism take?
An intersectional approach in its analysis of how gender, race, class, and so forth simultaneously produce relations of privilege and relations of subordination It also seeks to explore the multiplicities of femininities and masculinities.
98
How does post-structuralism understand gender?
Understand people as positioned within, and produced by, discourse. Gender discourses position all people as either men or women--and these categories are relational. Masculinity and femininity and even sex itself are understood as being socially and discursively constructed.
99
Who is the key theorist to the post-structuralist approach to gender? What do they believe?
- Judith Butler
- Although feminists rejected the idea that biology is destiny, many developed an understanding of patriarchal future that positioned masculine and feminine genders as inevitable. Butler argues instead that there is no essential basis to gender, nor is there some authentic femininity or masculinity that is rooted in female and male bodies. Gender can be viewed as a performance. Gender is your performance of gender a particular times and in particular spaces rather than some universal, coherent notion of "who you are."
100
What statement can feminist theory be typified by?
Biology is not destiny
101
What is the difference between West and Zimmerman's "doing gender" and Butler's approach of "gender as a performance"
The major difference between them is their treatment of the self (also called the subject in post-structuralist theorizing). While symbolic interactionists argue that a relatively coherent, stable self (your sense of who you are, the real you) underlies social interactions, post-structuralists argue that there is no coherent or essential self behind our performances--our identifies are fragment, contradictory, and always in flux. According to post-structuralists, our "performances" are driven by discourses of power that shape the limits and possibilities for the construction of our identities. Gender is but one of these performances.
102
What remains in relation to the wage gap between men and women, responsibility for housework and childcare, and the normalization of particular bodies?
Persistent inequalities
