Chapter 9 Blood, lymph, and immunity Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
Blood is classified as?
A
connective tissue
2
Q
What are the 3 main functions of blood?
A
transportation, regulation, and defense
3
Q
______ is a transport system.
A
Blood
4
Q
Blood carries ______, ______, and other essential ______ to every living cell in the body.
A
oxygen, nutrients, compounds
5
Q
______ is carried by hemoglobin in the red blood cells (RBCs).
A
Oxygen
6
Q
______ and other essential _______ are dissolved in the blood plasma.
A
Nutrients, compounds
7
Q
Blood carries the ______ _______ of cellular metabolism (CO2) away from the cells to the waste disposal organs that excrete them from the body, most often the lungs and the kidneys.
A
waste products
8
Q
Blood is a ________ system.
A
regulatory
9
Q
Blood aids in regulation of _____ _____, ______ _______ content, regulation of blood _____.
A
body temperature, tissue fluid content, blood pH
10
Q
Blood is a ______ system.
A
defense
11
Q
_______ blood cells provide defense from foreign invaders into the body through ________ or through their involvement in immunity.
A
White
phagocytosis
12
Q
What is phagocytosis?
A
ingesting the invaders
13
Q
_______ are found in the blood.
A
platelates
14
Q
There are _____ clotting factors found in blood that are necessary for blood to clot. If one clotting factor is missing, blood will not clot.
A
13
15
Q
Blood is a _____ in which cells and cell fragments are suspended.
A
fluid
16
Q
What compounds in the blood are either dissolved or suspended?
A
oxygen, electrolytes, hormones, nutrients, and drugs
17
Q
The liquid portion of blood is called?
A
plasma
18
Q
The cellular portion of blood is made up of?
A
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
19
Q
What is another name for red blood cells?
A
erythrocytes
20
Q
What is another name for white blood cells?
A
leukocytes
21
Q
What is another name for platelets?
A
thrombocytes
22
Q
What is hemoconcentration?
A
when there is less plasma in the bloodstream (dehydration) and the cells become more concentrated
23
Q
What is hemodilution?
A
when an animal has too much fluid in the bloodstream; the plasma dilutes the cells
24
Q
What does whole blood mean?
A
used to denote blood contained in the cardiovascular system or a sample that contains plasma and all of its cellular components
25
What is peripheral blood?
whole blood that flows through the blood vessels that carry blood to and from the heart and lungs
26
What is plasma?
the fluid portion of a blood sample
27
Plasma makes up from _____ to ______ of blood volume depending on the species and the size of the red blood cells.
45% to 78%
28
______ ______ cells make up the next largest component of blood after plasma.
Red blood
29
The _____ ______ cells and _____ make up a small portion of the total volume of the blood sample.
white blood
| platelets
30
_______ is about 93% water.
Plasma
31
Plasma contains what substances that are dissolved or suspended in it?
plasma proteins such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen make up the majority of these substances
32
The gases most abundant in plasma are?
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
33
______, _______ acids, _______ wastes, and electrolytes such as _____, ______, ______, ______, _______, _______ ions are also found in plasma.
```
Lipids
amino acids
metabolic wastes
sodium
potassium
calcium
magnesium
chloride
bicarbonate ions
```
34
When systemic drugs are administered to an animal, they are carried to their site of action by ______.
plasma
35
Frequently, drugs have to attach themselves to a transport plasma protein such as ______ to make themselves soluble in the plasma.
albumin
36
What is hemoglobin?
the protein in red blood cells that gives them their red color and enables them to carry large amounts of oxygen
37
What are anticoagulants?
substances that tie up clotting factors and prevent blood from clotting
38
What is the serum in blood?
the fluid that rises to the top of the tube after a blood sample has been centrifuged
39
What is the difference between blood plasma and blood serum?
plasma is whole blood minus cells; serum is whole blood minus the cells and clotting elements
40
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)do what?
carry oxygen
41
Thrombocytes (platelets) do what?
help prevent leaks from damaged blood vessels
42
How many types of Leukocytes (WBC) are there?
5
43
What term is used to describe the 3 WBC that have granules in their cytoplasm and are named by how the granules stain?
granulocytes
44
What are the 3 granulocytes?
eosinophils (red granules)
basophils (blue granules)
neutrophils (granules that stain neither blue nor red
45
What are the other 2 WBC that don't have granules in their cytoplasm are called?
agranulocytes
46
What are the 2 agranulocytes?
monocytes and the lymphocytes
47
Cellular structures that are basic (alkaline) will stain _____.
blue
48
Cellular structures that are acidic will stain ____.
red
49
The cellular structures that stain red and blue are called?
polychromatic stains because they stain more than one color
50
What is the most widely used hematology stain?
Wright's stain
51
The basic (alkaline) part of a Wright's stain is?
methylene blue
52
The acidic part of a Wright's stain is?
eosin
53
What is a general term for the production of all blood cells?
hematopoiesis
54
In an early fetus, most hematopoiesis takes place in the...?
liver and spleen
55
As the fetus develops, the _____ _______ gradually takes over production of the blood cells.
bone marrow
56
In a newborn animal most of the blood cell production is occurring in the active bone marrow. This is called?
red bone marrow based on its gross appearance
57
As an animal gets older some of the red bone marrow is converted to _____ _______ bone marrow.
inactive yellow
58
Yellow bone marrow is composed of?
yellow fat cells that have replaced some of the active red marrow
59
The liver and spleen have a limited capacity to participate in?
hematopoiesis
60
Scattered about the bone marrow is a population of cells that are primitive cells (stem cells) called?
pluripotent stem cells (have a lot of potential)(PPSCs) also known as hematopoietic stem cells
Can develop into any one of the blood cells depends on chemical or physiological stimuli
61
Erythropoiesis is?
a hormone that is produced when there is a perceived need for more red blood cells to carry oxygen such as a condition called hypoxia (decreased oxygen levels in the blood). The hormone is carried by the blood to the bone marrow. There it will stimulate PPSC cells to begin development into red blood cells (involves numerous cell divisions)
62
What is the spleen?
a spongelike organ in the abdomen that is capable of holding a lot of blood
63
Red blood cells are known as _____.
RBCs
64
What is the process of red blood cells called?
erythropoiesis
65
What is erythropoietin (EPO)?
a hormone released from cells in the kidney in response to hypoxia - which triggers stem cell to divide and differentiate
66
What physiologic state of blood acts as the stimulus for erythropoiesis?
hypoxia
67
What is pyknotic?
a term used to describe a nucleus that has died
68
What is one of the most common causes of hemoconcentration and how can it affect blood cell counts in peripheral blood?
dehydration from vomiting, diarrhea, profuse sweating, or some pathological condition can cause a relative elevation of blood cell count in perpherial blood
69
What is the difference between red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow?
in a newborn animal most of the blood cell production is occurring in the active bone marrow, or red bone marrow (based on its gross appearance). At this young age the red bone marrow is found in nearly all bones because there is a great demand for blood cells as an animal grows and matures. The older the animal gets, the less the need for a high blood cell production rate, so some of the red bone marrow is converted to inactive, yellow bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow is composed of yellow fat cells that have replaced some of the active red marrow. In a mature animal most of the red bone marrow is found at the ends of long bones and flat bones. The rest is yellow bone marrow.
70
What is the difference between red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow?
in a newborn animal most of the blood cell production is occurring in the active bone marrow, or red bone marrow (based on its gross appearance). At this young age the red bone marrow is found in nearly all bones because there is a great demand for blood cells as an animal grows and matures. The older the animal gets, the less the need for a high blood cell production rate, so some of the red bone marrow is converted to inactive, yellow bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow is composed of yellow fat cells that have replaced some of the active red marrow. In a mature animal most of the red bone marrow is found at the ends of long bones and flat bones. The rest is yellow bone marrow.
71
How does one cell population, the pluripotent stem cells, give rise to all the different blood cells?
A PPSC has the potential to develop into any one of the blood cells. Which one is determined by the chemical or physiologic stimulus that acts on the stem cell. Each blood cell type has its own set of stimuli required to activate a PPSC to start down the path of development of that specific blood cell. Once a PPSC has been stimulated to produce a specific blood cell, the process is irreversible.
72
What causes polychromasia in developing red blood cell cytoplasm?
At some point during the red blood cell maturation process, hemoglobin production begins in the cytoplasm. Hemoglobin stains red. When you add the red hemoglobin to the already blue cytoplasm you get a lavender colored cytoplasm. (polychromasia) Its presence in circulating RBC's is used as an indication that the cells are not yet fully mature, but hemoglobin production is happening.
73
How does having a deformable but not elastic membrane affect a red blood cell when fluid enters the cell?
The red blood cell can take in water and swell (which will result in the red blood cell forming into a sphere) without rupturing the membrane; however, if it takes in too much water, it can burst (hemolysis)
74
How does a red blood cell carry oxygen to tissues?
Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues through the production of the protein hemoglobin that binds with the oxygen. Hemoglobin is a protein composed of two components—heme and globin. These two components are produced by the red blood cell as it matures.
75
What is hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is a protein composed of two components—heme and globin. These two components are produced by the red blood cell as it matures.
76
What is heme?
Heme is the pigment portion and is produced in the mitochondria
Every heme group can carry a molecule of oxygen. Four heme groups attach to each globin molecule, so each hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen. The oxygen attaches to iron atoms (Fe++) that are part of each heme group.
77
What is globin?
globin is the protein portion and is produced by ribosomes.
78
Where does bilirubin come from? How is it eliminated from the body?
The heme from hemoglobin is disassembled and eliminated from the body. To do this it is first converted to bilirubin, which is then carried to the liver by the plasma protein, albumin. Bilirubin has to attach itself to albumin because at this stage it is not water soluble. At this point the bilirubin is classified as unconjugated or "free" bilirubin. In the liver, bilirubin is joined or conjugated to a compound called glucuronic acid. The combined bilirubin and glucuronic acid molecule is water soluble and excreted as a bile pigment into the intestines. The bilirubin is now classified as "conjugated" bilirubin. In the intestines, conjugated bilirubin is converted into urobilinogen by bacteria. Some of this urobilinogen will be reabsorbed and eliminated in the urine as urobilin. Some will be converted to another compound, stercobilinogen, and excreted in the stool as stercobilin.
79
What is the difference between anemia and polycythemia?
Anemia is a pathologic condition that results in decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. It can be caused by (1 )a low number of circulating mature red blood cells caused by blood loss, blood destruction, or decreased red blood cell production or (2) not enough hemoglobin being produced for the normal number of red blood cells present. Even though the bone marrow is producing the proper number of red blood cells, there isn’t enough hemoglobin to fill each red blood cell. This is often the result of a deficiency of one of the substances needed to synthesize heme or globin. Iron deficiency is a common cause of this type of anemia.
Polycythemia is an increase above normal in the number of red blood cells.
80
What are the three types of polycthemia?
There are three types of polycythemia: (1) Relative polycythemia is seen when there is a loss of fluid from blood (hemoconcentration). (2) Compensatory polycythemia is a result of hypoxia. The bone marrow is stimulated to make more red blood cells because the tissues aren’t getting enough oxygen. (3) Polycythemia rubra vera is a rare bone marrow disorder characterized by increased production of red blood cells for an unknown reason.
81
How can you use the hematocrit to evaluate a patient for anemia?
The percentage of red blood cells will be decreased if the animal is low on red blood cells or if the red blood cells are smaller than normal, two of the causes of anemia.
82
What is the “buffy coat?”
The buffy coat is the layer of white blood cells and platelets that settles on top of the red blood cell column in a packed cell volume tube after centrifugation. It appears cream or buff-colored. The thickness of the buffy coat can be used as an indicator of the total number of leukocytes and platelets in the sample. The thicker the buffy coat, the more white blood cells and platelets present. Most often a thicker buffy coat is caused by an increased number of white blood cells (leukocytosis).
83
Why are platelets not considered complete cells?
Platelets do not have nuclei. They are pieces of cytoplasm that have been isolated and released from giant, multinucleated cells (megakaryocytes) in the bone marrow.
84
There are three main functions of platelets, what is one?
(1) Maintenance of vascular integrity. Platelets help nurture the endothelial cells lining the vascular system. The platelets attach to the endothelium and release endothelial growth factor into the endothelial cells. If platelets are not present in adequate numbers, large numbers of red blood cells can migrate through the endothelial wall and produce petechiae (small hemorrhages) around the body.
85
What is a second function of platelets?
(2) Platelet plug formation. If the lining of a blood vessel is damaged, the exposed connective tissue attracts platelets, which adhere irreversibly to it and to each other (platelet adhesion) to try and stop hemorrhage. Absence of platelet adhesion can result in bleeding disorders. Once the platelets have adhered to the site of the injury, they change shape and develop pseudopods that allow them to intertwine with each other (platelet aggregation). As the platelets squeeze together, they release platelet factors (PFs) which are necessary for completion of the clotting process.
86
What is a 3rd function of platelets?
(3) Stabilization of the hemostatic plug by contributing to the process of fibrin formation. Blood clots when the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen is converted to insoluble strands of fibrin. For this to happen, various clotting factors and enzymes found in blood and tissues work together in a series of complex reactions. There are thirteen different factors that have been identified as necessary for clotting to take place. In most cases each of these factors has to be activated by another factor, and so on, in a cascade fashion that generates large quantities of a substance called thrombin on the aggregated platelets’ surfaces. The presence of thrombin is what causes the soluble fibrinogen to be converted to insoluble fibrin strands. The fibrin strands form a net-like mesh around and through the platelets. This is one of the final stages in the formation of a clot.
87
List the five white blood cells and indicate if each one is a granulocyte or an agranulocyte.
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are granulocytes. Monocytes and lymphocytes are agranulocytes.
88
What is the common function of all white blood cells?
The function of all white blood cells is to provide defense for the body against foreign invaders.
89
Which cell is the only white blood cell not capable of phagocytosis?
Lymphocyte
90
Which white blood cell is known as a PMN (polymorphonuclear cells - nuclei have many shapes)?
Neutrophil
91
What is a lysosome and what is its function?
Lysosomes are the granules within neutrophils that contain digestive enzymes capable of destroying bacteria and viruses that have been engulfed.
92
Which white blood cell is known as “the first line of defense” after a microorganism has entered the body?
Neutrophil
93
Which white blood cell would you likely see increased in peripheral blood during an allergic response?
Basophil
94
Which white blood cell is the largest cell normally seen in peripheral blood?
Monocyte
95
What is chemotaxis?
Chemotaxis is a process by which a cell is attracted to a specific site via chemicals. For example, neutrophils are attracted to a site of infection by inflammatory chemicals produced by the interaction between microorganisms and the tissues they are invading.
96
What are the three types of lymphocytes?
T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and natural killer cells.
97
What is the mononuclear phagocyte system? Why can’t a neutrophil belong to this system?
The mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) is the collective of monocytes and macrophages working together to perform several specific functions. (1) They clean up cellular debris that remains after an inflammation and/or infection clears up. (2) They process certain antigens, making them more antigenic. Monocytes and tissue macrophages can ingest antigens and present them on their cell membranes to the lymphocytes that will then destroy them. (3) They ingest foreign substances. They have the same phagocytic capabilities as neutrophils but are larger and can engulf structures beyond the phagocytic capacity of neutrophils (for example, fungi, protozoa, viruses, and dead neutrophils).
98
How does lymph differ from plasma?
Plasma is the fluid portion of blood and carries substances such as nutrients, oxygen, and hormones out with it to bathe the cells and tissues. Lymph comes from plasma but is different from plasma in that it is made up of more water, sugar, and electrolytes and less of the larger proteins found in plasma (for example, albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen) that were too large to leave in the first place.
99
Where is lymph formed?
Lymph starts out as excess interstitial tissue fluid picked up by small lymph capillaries that start blindly in the interstitial spaces of soft tissue. The excess tissue fluid accumulates when more fluid leaves blood capillaries than re-enters them.
100
What is the function of a lymph node?
Lymph nodes remove microorganisms or other foreign matter from lymph (for example, cancerous cells that break off a tumor and are picked up by the lymphatic capillaries) in an attempt to prevent the spread of disease or cancer. Lymph nodes also add lymphocytes or substances they produce into the lymph as it returns to the thoracic duct. By examining the lymph nodes microscopically, a pathologist can determine if the cancer has moved to the regional lymph nodes and how far along the chain of lymph nodes the cancer has spread.
101
Which lymphatic structure (organ) is composed of white pulp and red pulp?
Spleen
102
Which lymphatic structure (organ) is large at birth and gradually gets smaller as the animal matures?
Thymus
103
Where is the GALT (Gut associated lymph tissue) located?
The lining of the intestine
104
Where do plasma cells come from and what is their function?
B cells make clones of themselves which eventually transform into plasma cells. Plasma cells produce more of the specific antibody molecules initially produced by the original B cell. Plasma cells secrete the antibody molecules into plasma instead of placing them in their cell membrane. These antibodies will circulate in the bloodstream and destroy more of the same antigen.
Plasma cells also come from memory cells. Some of the cloned B cells don’t become antibody-secreting plasma cells, but instead become memory cells that will transform into plasma cells when they encounter the same antigen during a subsequent infection.
105
2. How does cell-mediated immunity differ from humoral immunity
Cell-mediated immunity is the function of T cells that attach to antigenic sites on the surfaces of foreign cells. When T cells are processed in the thymus, they develop specific antigen receptors on their cell membranes. These receptors are unique for one antigen only and each T cell has only one type of receptor on its cell membrane.
Humoral immunity takes place in plasma, one of the “humors” or body fluids. It is the function of B cells that transform into plasma cells (and memory cells) and produce specific protective proteins called antibodies against specific antigens.
106
How do vaccines protect an animal from developing clinical signs of a disease?
Some vaccines contain killed antigens, others contain live but weakened (attenuated) antigens. Attenuated vaccines still have their epitopes intact but they are no longer able to cause disease (virulent). This initial immune response will produce memory T cells or B cells just as if the animal had been naturally infected with the virulent antigen. Later, if the animal is naturally exposed to the virulent form of the same antigen that was attenuated in the vaccine, the memory cells initiate an immune response so quickly and efficiently that the animal doesn’t have time to get sick.
107
What is the function of memory cells?
Memory cells are formed from sensitized T cells or cloned B cells. These cells eventually produce antibodies during subsequent infections by this antigen.
108
Why are young animals initially given a series of vaccinations to establish immunity against a disease?
A series of vaccinations is given to young animals because we can’t be sure when the passive immunity from the mother has worn off sufficiently for the animal to produce its own active immunity.
