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Research Methods in Psychology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Method of Tenacity

A

information accepted as true because is has always been believed or because superstition supports it.

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2
Q

Method of Authority

A

Relies on information or answers from an expert in the field.

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3
Q

Method of Intuition

A

Information accepted on the basis of a hunch

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4
Q

Empirical Method

A

Answering questions by direct observations or personal experience

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5
Q

Rational Method

A

from reasoning or logical conclusion

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6
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

A small set of specific observations is the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations. Induction=increase

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7
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

A general statement is the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples. Deduction=decrease

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8
Q

Science is

A

Empirical: answers are obtained by making structured or systemic observations.
Public: Observations are available for evaluation by others.
Objective: Outcome is not skewed by bias

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9
Q

Pseudoscience

A

A system of ideas often presented as science. Lacks some of the key components essential to scientific research. i.e. astrology, aromatherapy, and intelligent design.

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10
Q

The Steps in the Research Process

A
  1. find a research idea
  2. form a hypothesis
  3. determine how you will define and measure variables
  4. Identify the subjects, how they will be selected, plan their treatment
  5. select a research strategy
  6. select a research design
  7. conduct the study
  8. evaluate the data
  9. report the results
  10. refine or reformulate your research idea.
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11
Q

The First steps of the research process

A

Step 1: find a research idea
Step 2: form a hypothesis

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12
Q

Common sources of research topics

A

personal interests & curiosities, causal observations, reports of others observations, practical problems or questions, behavioral theories

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13
Q

The purpose of a literature search

A

-To gain a general familiarity with the current research in your specific area of interest.
-To find a small set of research studies to serve as the basis for your research idea.
- Find a set of published research reports defining the current state of knowledge.

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14
Q

Conducting a Literature search

A

Your purpose: narrow down your general idea to a specific research question
A Start point: recently published secondary source.
Subject words: List correct terms & subject words.
Make note of the author(s) names.

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15
Q

The research process Step 3 & 4

A

Step 3: specify how the variables will be defined & measured.
Step 4: identify the individuals who will participate in the study, describe how they will be selected & provide ethical treatment.

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16
Q

Theory

A

a set of statements about mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.

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17
Q

Construct

A

hypothetical entities created from theory & speculation. Cannot be seen, but assumed to exist. (attraction, evil, anxiety, good)

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18
Q

Operational Definitions

A

Clear and specific description of how to measure something, or how to represent a concept/construct. (explain the unexplainable)

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19
Q

Measurement of Validity

A

Measurement procedure most accurately capture the variable that it is supposed to measure.

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20
Q

Face Validity

A

simplest & least scientific, a measurement superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure.

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21
Q

Predictive Validity

A

scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory

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22
Q

Construct Validity

A

scores obtained from a measurement behave exactly the same as the variable itself

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23
Q

Convergent validity

A

strong relationship between the scores obtained from two or more different methods of measuring the same construct

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24
Q

Divergent validity

A

showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs

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25
Reliability of measurement
stability or consistency of the measurements (results) produced by a specific measurement procedure
26
Observer error
the individual who makes the measurements can introduce simple human error
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Source of error: Environmental changes
it is difficult to attain the ideal identical circumstances
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Source of error: Participants changes
the participants can change between measurements
29
Successive measurements
Test-retest reliability compares scores of two successive measurements of the same individuals & correlates the scores.
30
Simultaneous measurements
Inter-rater reliability which is a agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.
31
splits the test in half, computing a separate score for each half, & then calculating the degrees of consistency
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Validity and Reliability
Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. A measurement can be reliable with being valid. Measurement is a procedure for classifying individuals.
33
The Process of measurement
-set of categories -procedure for assigning individuals to categories
34
Nominal Scale
represent qualitative differences in the variable measured
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Ordinal Scale
represents difference in a series of rank
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Interval & ratio Scale
Consist of a series of equal intervals like the inches on a ruler. A ratio scale has a true zero value.
37
Range effect
a measurement that is not sensitive enough to detect a difference.
38
Ceiling effect
clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale
39
Target Population
The group defined by the researcher's specific interests.
40
Accessible population
The people that the researcher can realistically involve in the study.
41
Representative Samples
A sample with the same characteristics as the population. Generalizing the results from a given sample to the population.
42
Law of large numbers
A large sample will probably be more representative than a small sample.
43
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The population is subdivided into strata. Number of participants from each stratum is selected randomly. The proportions in the sample corresponds to the proportions in the population. Requires a lot of work.
44
Quota Sampling
Subgroups are identified to be included. Quotas are established for individuals to be selected through convenience from each subgroup.
45
Category 1: Descriptive
data: a list of scores obtained by measuring each individual in the group begin studied. Ex. On average, college student study 12.5 hrs. outside of class each week & get 7.2 hours of sleep.
46
Category 3: Experimental
Data: create two treatment conditions by changing the level of one variable; then measure a second variable foe the participants in each condition.
47
Category 3: Quasi-Experimental
Data: measure before/ after scores for one group the receives a treatment & for a different group that does not receive the treatment.
48
Category 3: Non-experimental
data: measures scores for two different groups of participants or for one group at two different times.
49
External Validity
The extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized.
50
3 different kinds of generalizations
1) generalization from a sample to the general population. 2) generalization from one research study to another 3) generalization from a research study to a real-world situation
51
Internal Validity
Produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables. Interpretation of the results correctly or not.
52
Threats to generalizing across Participants (External validity)
-selection bias -overuse of college students -volunteer bias -participants characteristics -cross-species generalizations
53
Threats to generalizing across features of a study
-Novelty effects -Multiple treatment inference: Fatigue & Practice. -Experimental characteristics
54
Threats to generalizing across features of the measures
-Sensitization -generality across response measures -time of measurements
55
Threats to Internal Validity
-Extraneous variables: any variables in a research study other than the specific variables being studied. -Confounding variables are extraneous variables that are related to the independent variable.
56
Environmental factors
general threats for all designs -Participants variables: individual difference -Time related variables: threats for designs that compare one group over time.
57
Threats to both Internal & External Validity
Artifact: an external factor that may influence or distort measurements. -experimental bias -demand characteristics & pp reactivity Exaggerated variables: variables where we have maximized the differences for one of the variables to increase likelihood of revealing the relationship with the second variable.
58
Descriptive research (individual variables)
One or more variables measured per individual STATS describe the observes variable May use category and/or numerical variables. Not concerned with relationships between variables.
59
The correlational Method
One group of participants measurement or two variables for each participants goal is to describe the type & magnitude of the relationship.
60
Experimental & Nonexperimental methods
Comparing two or more groups of scores one variable defines the groups scores are measured on the second variable.
61
Real Limits
are the boundaries of intervals for scores that are represented on a continuous number line
62
Independent Variable
the variable that is manipulated by the researcher No other variable in the study influences its value; is manipulated prior to observing the dependent variable.
63
Dependent Variable
the one that is observed to assess the effect of treatment. Its value is thought to depend on the value of the independent variable.
64
The Summation (E)
The E is always followed by a symbol or equation that defines what is to be summed. Summation is done after operations in (), squaring, multiplication, & division. Summation is done before addition or subtraction X times f equals sum of scores
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Proportions
measures the fraction of the total group that is associated with each score. p=f/N
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Percentages
Expresses rf out of 100 f/n times 100
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Guidelines (grouped frequency Distribution)
-The width of each interval should be a relatively simple number. - the bottom score in each class interval should be a multiple of the width - all interval should be the same width.
68
Cumulative Frequency
refers to how likely an outcome is to be above or below a certain value in a data set
69
Constructing a polygon
- list all numeric scores on the x-axis - include those with a frequency of f=0 - draw a dot above the center of each interval, height of dot corresponds to frequency, connect the dots, close the polygon.
70
Skewed distribution
scores piled up one side and taper off in a tail on the other. tail on the right side is positive skew. tail on the left side is a negative skew.
71
Central tendency (average)
a STATS measure a single score that defines the center of a distribution. to find the single score that is most typical or mort representative of the entire group
72
The mean
the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. -Population mean= Ex/N - sample mean= Ex/n -Changing the value of any score changes the mean -introducing a new score or removing a score changes that mean -adding or subtracting a constant from each score changes the mean by the same constant. -multiplying or dividing each score by a constant multiplies or divides the mean by that constant.
73
The weighted mean
combine two sets of scores & then find the overall mean for the combined group. 1) determine the combined the sum of all the scores. 2) determine the combined number of scores 3) divide the sum of scores by the total number of scores.
74
The median
the midpoint of the scores in a distribution when they are listed in order from smallest to largest. divides the scores into two groups of equal size the median is the point on the measurement scale below which 50% of the scores in the distribution are located
75
Locating the median (odd n)
put the scores in order (lowest to highest) identify the "middle" score to find the median
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Locating the median (even)
Put the scores in order locate the median by finding the average of the middle two scores. the middle two scores are 4&5/2=4.5
77
Precise Median for a continuous variable
A continuous variable can be infinitely divided the precise median is located in the interval defined by the real limits of the value. we must determine the fraction of the interval needed to divide the distribution exactly in half. Fraction= number needed to reach 50%/number in the interval interpolation
78
The mode
the score or category that has the greatest frequency of any score in a frequency distribution can be used with any scale of measurement corresponds to an actual score in the data it is possible to have more than one mode.
79
Selecting a Central tendency: mean
you can calculate Ex, you know the value of every score. could be misleading if you have extreme scores, skewed distribution, undetermined values, open-ended distribution, ordinal & nominal scale
80
Selecting a central tendency: median
if you have extreme scores, skewed distribution, undetermined values, open-ended distribution, &ordinal scales. could be misleading if you have a nominal scale
81
selecting a central tendency: mode
if you have nominal scales, discrete variables, & describing shape. Misleading if interval or ratio data, excepts accompany mean or median.
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Research Methods in Psychology (1 decks)

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