Visual (formal) analysis
making objective, visual observations or descriptions about features of a work,
focuses on form (ex: format, scale, composition, viewpoint, space, form, line, color, light,
texture)
- Also includes analyses of the effects of visual features
Contextual Analysis
trying to determine subject matter, cultural characteristics, and historical significance; the
time/place in which a work was created, why and by whom it was made, how it originally
functioned; the interpretation of subject matter
style/representational mode
shared characteristics between artists working in the same time/place
iconography
the subject matter of images
iconographic analysis
the interpretation of the subject matter’s meaning; finding the purpose beyond the aesthetic
Mexica artists, Templo Mayor, c. 1400–1521, in Tenochtitlan, Mexico City. Mixed-Media.
Dedicated to 2 main deities (Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli)
- Reconstructed during 7 main building phases
- Located in the sacred precinct at the heart of the city, which was at the center of 4 quadrants
- Symbolized “atl-tlachinolli” meaning burnt water, which connotated warfare, the primary way
of gaining power/wealth
- Huitzilopochtli Temple: sacrificial stone, standard-bearer figures, serpent balustrades,
Coyoxauhqui monolith found at base of stairs
- Tlaloc temple: chacmool (a male figure holding a vessel to receive offerings), altar of the
frogs, symbolizes the mountain of sustenance, which was a fertile mountain that produced
high amounts of rain
- After the Spanish conquest the temple was destroyed and the remains were buried
- Each ruler was responsible for growing the temple
- The temple was restricted to rulers and high priests
- Meant to commemorate the origin story but also aid in the reenactment of the origin story
every year
Mexica artist, Coyolxauhqui Monolith (She of the Golden Bells), from Tenochtitlán, Mexico
City, Mexico, ca. 1469. Stone
Relates to the myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli (born from immaculate conception)
- Portrays the moment after Huitzilopochtli banished Coyoxauhqui and threw her body down
the mountain for attempting to kill their mother along with her brothers
- By placing the stone at the base of the temple, the Mexica effectively transformed the temple
into Coatepec
- Used to be painted in many colors
- Portrayed as naked = symbol of humility and defeat
- Jewelry indicates her of high status
- Rolls in her stomach were a symbol of motherhood
- Pinwheel composition = chaotic motion
Spolia
the Spanish reused the remaining stones of the indigenous buildings/structures they conquered and destroyed to build their own structures (ex: the Templo Mayor)
Mexica aesthetic
Time: begins 1375, transforms/adapts after 1521 (post-Columbian)
- Representational mode: interest in abstraction but also in the natural world (curvilinear,
smooth, monochromatic, 3D carving, natural stone) *use of the natural world to make
characters that don’t exist in the natural world
- Important subject/these: Tlaloc, religion, warfare
- Context: religious setting, offertory, pre-Columbian
Tlaloc
the Aztec rain and agriculture god
Huitzilopochtli
the patron deity of the Mexica; “hummingbird”; lead the Mexica to the Valley of Mexico and Lake Texoco
Coyolxauhqui
the sister of Huitzilopochtli; “she of golden bells”; depicted on a monolith, which led to the discovery of the Templo Mayor
Coatlicue
the mother of Huitzilopochtli and Coyolxauqui; “snake skirt”
Centzonhuitznahua
the 400 brothers of Coyolxauhqui who attempted to kill Coatlicue, but were defeated by Huitzilopochtli
Mexica artist, Tlaloc Vessel, c. 1440–70, found Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan, ceramic
Maya blue – a special bright blue pigment used in Mesoamerican culture; Connotations with water, preciousness, vegetation
- Key features of Tlaloc are goggle eyes and a fanged mouth
- Important to Mesoamerican cultures
- A type of offering that was found at the Templo Mayor; these offerings were buried within and under the temple
- Tlaloc temple: chacmool (a male figure holding a vessel to receive offerings), altar of the frogs, symbolizes the mountain of sustenance, which was a fertile mountain that produced high amounts of rain
Inka artist, Qorikancha, Peru, 15 th c. Limestone
The most sacred shrine of the Inka; “the golden house”
- The most important structure in the inka empire
- dedicated to the worship of the sun because the Inka claimed descent from the sun
- located in hurin the lower section
- after conquest, turned into Christian holy space
- double-jambed doorways signify importance of building
- walls covered in sheets of gold to signify dedication to Inti (the sun)
- houses manco capac’s mummy
- trapezoidal niches and doorways
- garden of gold and silver
Inka aesthetics
Time: origins in the 13 th century, but the empire, 1438-c. 1534
- Location: west south America, from Ecuador to chile
- Representational mode/style: fondness for geometric, abstraction, standardization, a culture
of stone, textiles
- Important subjects/themes: natural world, Sapa Inka, ancestors, textiles, Cuzco, Qorikancha, Machu Picchu
- Context and Important terms: the ancestor Manco Capac; the establishment of Cuzco and Tawantinsuyu, the reign of Pachakuti; tinkuy
Polygonal masonry
the shapes of the stones are irregular but the way they fit is regular
Ashlar masonry
stones of similar shapes smoothed together; reserved for buildings of the highest quality
Inti
the sun
Inka/Inca
people of the sun
Sapa Inka
the inka emperor
Manco Capac
first Sapa Inka that establishes Cuzco
Mama Ocllo
wife of Manco Capac
Tawantinsuyu
“the land of the four quarters”; what the inka called their empire
Inka artist, El Torreon, Machu Picchu, Peru, 15 th c. Limestone
The emperor would only reside at Machu Picchu for part of the year
- Commanded colonists to work for the Inka nobility which was an expression of imperial power
- Uses ashlar masonry
- Extension of living rock that encapsulates a sacred stone
- Staircases that go nowhere to create an optional illusion that what is natural and Inca is the same (tinkuy)
- Reminding people of their relationship to the sun and to the earth. They are married to the
earth
Inka artist, Royal Unku, Peru, 15 th /16 th c. camelid fiber
Signified the geographical regions that the inka conquered
- An elaborate collage of other unkus that signifies the emperor as a person of power
- Geometric/abstract – symbolizes mountains/rocks
Unku
article of clothing made of cotton and camelid fiber covered with geometric patterns; essentially a robe
Masaccio, Tribute Money, c. 1427, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence,
Italy, fresco, patron: Felice Brancacci
Tax collecter comes and Jesus tells peter to pluck a fish out of the ocean and pay the tax, features three scenes in one. An example of Italian Renaissance art
fresco
usually done on a wall; involves plastering in sections before painting so if you look closely you are able
to see “a days work” colors are less vibrant and you are able to include less detail; uses
tempura paint which is made of egg yolk/pigment: very sticky and dries quickly
Italian Renaissance art
Emotion
- Figures from many points of view
- Modeling (chiaroscuro)
- Revival of classical interest in anatomy/proportion
- Illusion of space (an earthly setting)
- Atmospheric perspective
- Naturalism: the faithful representation of the observable world
Chiaroscuro
the body takes up space and interacts with light
Contrapposto
a more naturally positioned body where weight
Vanishing point
the illusion of 3D space on a 2D surface (linear perspective)
Aerial/atmospheric perspective
background is blurry to indicated depth, more blue in color
Historia
from Leon Battista Alberti’s “On Painting” which he argues is one of 3 components that make a
painting “good.” It needs to depict a narrative where a convincing action takes place
Humanism
interest in humans and human bodies
Robert Campin, Merode Altarpiece, c. 1425, oil on wood, patron: Inghelbrecht family
Intended for private devotion
- Center panel: “the annunciation” Gabriel tells mary she is pregnant with Jesus
- Right panel: joseph the carpenter; in his workshop making a mousetrap = sign for ensnaring
the devil
- Left panel: patrons of the painting (Inghelbrecht and Scrynmakers) watching the annunciation
- Inghelbrecht = husband, angel bringer
- Schrynmakers = wife, cabinet makers
- Status symbol, shows devotion of mary, coat of arms
- Examples of disguised symbolism: white cloth = purity, copper put = purity, lilies = virginity, 3
flowers = trinity, extinguished candle = presence of god, open book = new testament, scroll =
old testament)
Northern Renaissance art
Perfection of oil paint - Representation of minute detail/reality effects - Light/textures - Naturalism - Material objects - Antiquity less important - Empirical spatial conceptualization (slanted/elongated space to show maximum area) - Symbolism/iconography and setting Disguised Symbolism Oil Paintings
Disguised symbolism
objects with a larger message/deeper meaning
oil painting
allow for a greater color palette, dries slowly so the artist is able to layer and add texture/detail
Albrecht Dürer, Rhinoceros, woodcut, 1515, Germany
Circulates after Guttenberg invents the printing press
- People had never seen an exotic animal and much of what people knew about rhinos was
from the print
- Allowed them to experience something they had never actually seen before because prints
are easily produced and portable
Woodcut
printmaker carves image into wood, rub ink on surface; parts that remain transfer to paper while areas gouged out do not; each color = different block
Engraving
engraver uses a burin to incise metal (usually copper); surface inked, then wiped clean; incisions
retain ink, pressed onto paper; evolution of print making, allowed for more detail
Sofonisba Anguissola, Self-Portrait at Easel, 1556, oil on canvas
Depicted herself painting; portraiture was a way to show skill and intellect
- Not normal for a woman to be an artist
- Looking directly at us which was uncommon because women were not supposed to look
people directly in the eye; outside the boundaries of her gender
- Provocative moment
- Self taught but she studied with other males
- Became well known for skill in painting
- Recruited by the court of Philip II to paint portraits = great honor
El Greco, Burial of the Count of Orgaz, 1586–88, oil on canvas, Santo Tomé, Toledo, Spain
Don Gonzalo Ruiz (count of Orgaz)
- Donated money to the church of Santo Tome upon his death
- The story is: after he died, saints Augustine and Stephen lowered him into a tomb to honor
him for his good deeds - One of the world’s most recognizable and reproducible paintings
- Painted by “the Greek” El Greco who trained as a byzantine icon painter, worked in titian’s
workshop, and settled in spain to work for king Philip II - Malleable/elongated figures are lit from unknown sources
- Depicts numerous figures/miraculous circumstances surrounding the burial of the count
- Reminiscent of paintings showing the entombment of Christ where Christ’s body is lowered
into the grave - Recognized for the number of portraits included within a complex composition
- Combines portraits with saintly figure = witnessing of events
- A reminder of judgment
- Heavenly realm vs. earth realm
- Uses looser brushwork that creates movement
- The painting is above Count Orgaz’s tomb: this creates the effect that the saints are lowering
the body into the tomb, which brings the viewer into the narrative and reminds the viewer of
death/judgment; makes the moment more dramatic/leaves a greater impression
Post-tridentine art
art that embodies the ideas of the Council of Trent – people who reformed the Catholic
Church – images of holy figures are important, but not alive; a response to Protestants
who thought art was problematic
Nahua artist, Crucifixion, c. 1560–90, large cloister of ex-convento, San Agustín de
Acolman, Mexico
Painted largely in black and white because they are inspired by European prints
- Fresco
- Educational images to tell people about the life of Jesus
- Surrounded by grotesques (pretty filler imagery meant for framing)
- Tlacuilo artist
Tlacuilo
indigenous artist authors, well-educated, well-esteemed men who were trained in European art at
schools attached to conventos
Nahua artist, The Mass of St. Gregory, 1539, feathers on wood with touches of paint,
Mexico
Narrative of when Jesus comes to life during the eucharist; jesus depicted as the “man of
sorrows”
- Made entirely of feathers on wood
- Made during the height of the Spanish conquest
- Hybrid piece
- The frame translates that the artwork is going to Pope Paul III who intervened and said that
Ameri Indians have souls and should be treated like human beings
- Divine power and sacredness associated with birds/feathers
Amanteca
featherworkers; highly regarded in society, got special privileges, special connection to Mexica ruler
Postcolonialism
looking to artwork to understand histories that don’t fit into European styles; responds to the cultural legacies of colonialism and imperialism
Hybrid
the result of the interactions between different cultures and moments of time; speaks to various worlds/people; “clash of cultures”
featherwork
art that utilized feathers; iridescent feathers were highly prized not just for their color but for the
way they interact with light; other kinds of feathers used were Quetzal and hummingbirds;
usually sent back to Europe to be displayed in cabinets of curiosity
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, “His Majesty Asks, the Author Responds,” in The First
New Chronicle and Good Government, c. 1615, pen and ink on paper, Peru
Guaman poma writes a long letter about the Andan peoples prior to the arrival of Europeans
- Documented the current colonial situation
- Recorded the abuses of indigenous peoples under the colonial government
- Most famous manuscript from South America because it is so long and because it has many
illustrations - Tells us about the pre-Hispanic Andean peoples
- Written in multiple languages
- First self portrait after Spanish conquest (pay little attention to the detail of faces)
- Recounts the Spanish conquest and civil wars
- Portrays the complexity and chaos of the time
- While he was writing he stopped to draw instead of adding drawings in as an afterthought
- Shows him kneeling in front of the Spanish kind and pope dressed in European and
indigenous clothes - Influenced by prints
- Not commissioned
Edo peoples (Benin Kingdom), Equestrian Oba with Attendants, 1550–1680, brass plaque, Nigeria
Ruler surrounded by attendants, riding a horse
- Features of global exchange: rosettes = European influence, brass = from trade, coral =
comes from Mediterranean
- Hierarchic scale: size of figures not representative of their height but of importance
- Tells the story of the royal lineage
- Oba has the most elaborate head gear, chest plate, beads
Benin Style – hierarchic scale, balance/symmetry, 3D, rosette pattern, precision
Lost-wax technique
existed prior to the arrival of Europeans
- Clay core, general approximation of figure; layer of wax, sculpt detail; put sculpture on base,
surround with sand/clay; pour molten brass
British Punitive Expedition of 1897
in response to the end of their trade relationship with the people of Benin, Britain seized the Oba’s palace, burned down the city and looted art and treasure; now there is a debate whether art should be returned to its people or remain in museum collections around the world
Oba
King of the Benin empire
Edo Peoples, Queen Mother Pendant Mask, 16 th century, Court of Benin, Nigeria, ivory,
iron, copper
The Queen mother was the Oba’s mother
- Person of importance; the only other person to get brass portraits
- made of ivory
- headdress with crown of Portuguese and mudfish = symbol of power
- secured the Oba’s power
- depicted similarly to the Oba in terms of features and symbols
- conical headdress shape was used to depict women
Sapi artist, Lidded Saltcellar, 15 th –16 th century, ivory, Sierra Leone
made to hold salt, which was a symbol of status
- made by the Sapi peoples and sent back to Europe to be sold
- used as diplomatic gifts to secure alliances, displayed in curiosity cabinets as a sign of
exotica
- influenced by European prints
- predominantly sapi aesthetic but has European influences (ex: rosettes and braiding, snakes
are a Sapi aesthetic)
- traumatic impact of Portuguese reflected in sapi art
- sapi perception of what happens in this time period
- swirling snakes = motion/movement, dogs were thought to see spirits, dogs vs. snakes =
conflict/unfrendly
- patterns based on local textile patterns
- shape modeled after gourds and relates to an egg (egg = creation story)
- life vs. death
Shen Zhou, Lofty Mount Lou, dated 1467. Hanging scroll
Very delicate/fragile
- Ink and color on paper
- Extremely detailed, crisp lines
- Painted by Shen Zhou, an intellectual artist who removed himself from the everyday life to
appreciate landscape and nature
- Includes poetry inscriptions about the scroll
- Meant for people to spend time looking at the painting and appreciating the details
- Meditate with nature
- Sparks conversation
Ming dynasty aesthetics
Iconography: figural and landscape themes that evoked Song dynasty, especially recluses,
gardens, intellectuals/literati
- Media: paintings, gardens, ceramics
- Historical context: period of cultural renewal; desire to reassert native artistic traditions
especially following the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll
piece of paper that hangs from a rod, which has a string attached in order to be hung on the wall; can be rolled up for transportation
Ming dynasty. Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets, 16 th century and later, Suzhou, China
Everything in the garden is unnatural, madn-made
- Not solely meant for the purpose of aesthetic
- Private gardens
- The site was developed over time, not all at once
- The rhythm created is small buildings punctuated by courtyards
- “scholars rocks” are found here (rocks with perforations)
- Distillation of the qualities of nature
- Molded by nature but enhanced by man
- Presentation of contrasts
- Changing of the seasons but consistency of rocks
- Utilized literary references
- A type of refuge
- Functioned as sites of retirement, leisure, entertainment, self-cultivation, moral cultivation
Ming dynasty, Cup with Chicken Design, 15 th century, porcelain with underglaze and
overglaze polychrome decoration, China
Chicken: symbol of good luck/wealth
- Ceramics are the most important types of artwork created at this time
- No one was able to replicate
- Expansion of the repertoire of ceramics
- Utilized doucai, new colors (pink, yellow, black, green)
- Went for 32 million dollars
- Used symbols/elements that attract a certain audience
Kaolin
special clay that was used to produce the finest blue and white porcelain
Cobalt
a special type of blue that was imported
Doucai
underglaze of blue and white and overglaze of other colors after 1 st firing; “joined” or “contrasted” colors
Underglaze
first coat of color/design before firing
blue-and-white porcelain
produced for export markets
- Earliest example found are temple vases
- Used in temples and burials, but most were exported
- Decoration had primarily Chinese influence/motifs but also geometric patterns to satisfy
Middle East market
- Admired by imperial court
- Took their shapes from Islamic metalwork
- Could not be replicated
Sesshu Toyo, Splashed Ink Landscape, 1495, hanging scroll, ink on paper, Japan
Impressionist
- Tree on a rocky island with a wine shop and people on a boat
- Uses haboku technique
- Mirrors the idea of sartori: that enlightenment happens all at once
- The idea is that you’ve thought of the image already
- For samurai to channel the focus and mindfulness to kill and not be killed
- monochrome
Zen Buddhism
Style: monochrome, splashed ink painting, kare sansur, wabi and sabi aesthetics
- Subjects: ink landscape painting, patriarch figures, rock gardens, tea ceremony, raku ware
- Context: zen buddhism, muromachi period, shogun and samurai
Haboku
fast, broken ink technique
Ashikaga/ Muromachi era, Ryoan-ji Temple, Kyoto, 15 th c. Japan
White gravel raked into lines using mindfulness to create parallel straight, identical lines
- Aid to mediation and working mindfully
- Wabi sabi aesthetic
- Stones surrounded by white gravel = Microcausm of the universe, life cycle, scale
- Rocks suggest islands, shores, bridges
- Worshop of dieties in nature
- Expression of abstract composition
- Emphasizes the ideas of Zen buddhism and meditation
Kare sansui
dried up mountain and water
Hon’ami Koetsu, Mount Fuji, ca. 1600. Raku ware, Japan
Raku ware – the cups used during the tea ceremony; reflects the wabi sabi aesthetic (rough, natural, earthy), engages the senses
Wabi-sabi – truth to materials; wabi: austerity, simplicity, refined; sabi: subdued taste, subtle yet artfully complex
Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaykh to Kings, ca. 1615-1618, opaque watercolor on
paper, India
Jahangir “Seizer of the world” emperor
- His head is in front of a sun and moon which symbolize his emperorship and divine truth
- Seated on an elevated stone platform, depicted as the largest of the 5 figures
- Halo is a visual manifestation of honor
- 2: Sufi Shaikh accepts a book from the emperor which makes a statement about the
emperor’s spiritual leanings
- 3: Ottoman Sultan exhibits respect and humility
- 4: King James I of England hand not drawn touching weapon to avoid interpretation of
threat to the emperor
- 5: Bichitr: the artist self portrait showing humility towards the emperor
- Once part of an album
- His reputation is strong in formal portraiture and rendering of hands
- Jahangir’s gem studded bracelets and rings vs. Shaikh’s bare hands = rich vs. poor, material
vs. spiritual
- Crouching angels
- “O Shah, may the span of our life be a thousand years”
- Allegorical portrait
- The artist indulges Jahangir’s desire to be seen as a powerful ruler
Mughal dynasty, Taj Mahal, 1632-1653, marble and semi-precious stones, Agra, India
made by Shah Jahan – 5 th ruler of the Mughal dynasty
- build in Agra on the banks of the Yamuna river
- uses white marble and red sandstone
- center of chamber holds emperor and his wife’s coffins and cenotaphs
- gardens
- Architectural “symbol of love”
- Not a funeral monument
- Symbolic representation of a divine throne on the day of judgment
- Replica of a house of paradise to glorify Mughal rule and the emperor