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1
Q

Provide communication between cells of the body through the release of hormones into the bloodstream

A

Endocrine system

2
Q

Provides communication between cells of the body through electrical signals and the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps between certain cells

A

Nervous system

3
Q

Supports the body; allows voluntary movement of the body; allows facial expressions

A

Musculoskeletal system

4
Q

Transports molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream

A

Cardiovascular system

5
Q

Bring oxygen into the body and eliminates carbon dioxide from the body

A

Respiratory system

6
Q

Filters the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, and ion concentrations; eliminates wastes

A

Urinary system

7
Q

Break down food and absorb it into the body

A

Gastrointestinal system

8
Q

Generate offspring

A

Reproductive system

9
Q

Defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells

A

Immune system

10
Q

Protects the body from the external environment

A

Integumentary system

11
Q

The philosophical attempt to describe things in terms of their apparent purpose, direct principle, or goal.

A

Teleology

12
Q

Relating to theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic terms

A

Mechanistic

13
Q

Types of muscle cells

A

smooth, cardiac, skeletal

14
Q

Types of connective tissue cells

A

fibroblasts, bone cells, blood cells

15
Q

Types of epithelial cells

A

basement membrane cells, lumen cells

16
Q

Glands that secrete their products (hormones) directly into the blood rather than through a duct

A

Endocrine glands

17
Q

Glands that secrete their products into ducts; includes sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and many other of the digestive system

A

Exocrine glands

18
Q

Makes up 20% of body weight; Includes plasma, fluid in stomach and intestines, fluid surrounding the brain, joint fluid, and lymph fluid

A

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

19
Q

Makes up 40% of body weight; Includes cells

A

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

20
Q

Makes up 40% of body weight; Includes bones and tissue matter

A

Solid matter

21
Q

A solution that bathes and surrounds the tissue cells of multicellular animals; Is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and transcellular fluid

A

Interstitial fluid (ISF)

22
Q

Who came up with postulates on homeostasis control?

A

Walter Bradford Cannon

23
Q

Cannon’s postulate #1

A

Nervous regulation of the internal environment

24
Q

Cannon’s postulate #2

A

Tonic control of activity

25
Q

Cannon’s postulate #3

A

Antagonistic control of activity

26
Q

Cannon’s postulate #4

A

Chemical signals have different effects on different tissues

27
Q

Nerve impulses that maintain a normal tonus or level of activity in muscle or other effector organs

A

Tonic control

28
Q

The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes

A

Homeostasis

29
Q

What is the general term for the inability to maintain or quickly re-establish homeostasis?

A

Disease

30
Q

What is the primary mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis?

A

Negative feedback control

31
Q

Four basic types of biomolecules

A

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Amino Acids/Proteins, and Nucleotides

32
Q

Three types of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

33
Q

Five classes of lipids

A

Triglycerides, ketones, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids

34
Q

What are steroids derived from?

A

Cholesterol

35
Q

Polymers of nucleotides

A

Nucleic acids

36
Q

Polymers of amino acids

A

Proteins

37
Q

Generally 2-50 amino acids

A

Peptides

38
Q

More than 50 amino acids

A

Proteins

39
Q

The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell

A

Metabolism

40
Q

Reactions involved in energy storage and use

A

Energy metabolism

41
Q

Processes proceed in the direction that spreads out energy

A

Second Law of Thermodynamics

42
Q

Catabolic reactions are…

A

exergonic

43
Q

Anabolic reactions are…

A

endergonic

44
Q

Last slide

A

19

45
Q

What is the law that states that increasing reactant concentration pushes a reaction forward, while increasing product concentration pushes a reaction in reverse?

A

Law of Mass Action

46
Q

Are enzymes changed in a reaction?

A

No

47
Q

Are enzymes consumed in the reaction?

A

No

48
Q

Are enzymes specific for one set of substrates or a group of similar substrates?

A

Yes !

49
Q

What are the two models of substrate specificity?

A

Lock-and-key model and Induced-fit model

50
Q

In this model of substrate specificity the active site approximately fits substrates; as the substrate begins to bind, a conformational change in the enzyme allows it to fit better

A

Induced-fit model

51
Q

Molecules that bind to proteins

A

Ligands

52
Q

Through what type of bonds to ligands bind to proteins?

A

Hydrogen and ionic bonds

53
Q

Ions or molecules required by an enzyme for the enzyme to be active

A

Cofactors (usually ions) and coenzymes (usually organic / vitamins)

54
Q

Organic molecules that can transfer chemical groups during chemical reactions.

A

Coenzymes

55
Q

What are the two types of enzyme regulation?

A

Allosteric and covalent

56
Q

Which type of enzyme regulation involves altering the affinity or catalytic rate of the enzyme?

A

Allosteric regulation

57
Q

Which type of enzyme regulation involves an enzyme changing from an inactive state to an active state upon the formation or breaking of covalent bonds?

A

Covalent regulation

58
Q

What is the most common chemical group used in covalent modulation?

A

Phosphate group

59
Q

Which type of enzyme regulation is mediated through additional enzymes?

A

Covalent regulation

60
Q

Does the addition of an allosteric modulator require a separate enzyme?

A

No

61
Q

Energy from what type of reaction (endergonic or exergonic) is used to synthesize ATP?

A

Exergonic

62
Q

Which type of phosphorylation requires electron transport chain?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

63
Q

OxPhos

A

ADP + Pi > ATP

64
Q

Sub-levelPhos

A

X-P + ADP > X + ATP

65
Q

Review equations on slide

A

61

66
Q

In glycolysis what is broken down?

A

Glucose

67
Q

Where does glycolysis take place?

A

In the cytosol

68
Q

What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?

A

2 ATP

69
Q

Is glucose consumed in glycolysis?

A

No

70
Q

Is CO2 produced in glycolysis?

A

No

71
Q

What cycle comes after glycolysis?

A

The Krebs Cycle

72
Q

What occurs during the linking step bertween glycolysis and Krebs cycle?

A

Pyruvate is converted ti acetyl CoA

73
Q

Is the glycolysis Krebs cycle linking step bidirectional or unidirectional?

A

Unidirectional

74
Q

In the linking step between glycolysis and Krebs cycle __ NADH is produced per __ molecule(s) of pyruvate and __ molecule(s) per glucose.

A

1, 1, 2

75
Q

How many CO2 molecules are produced per pyruvate molecule in the linking step?

A

1

76
Q

What is the initial substrate of the Krebs cycle?

A

Acetyl CoA

77
Q

Review metabolism products

A

slide 71

78
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation includes ____ and the ____.

A

glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

79
Q

How many ATPs are gained in OxPhos?

A

4 (net gain)

80
Q

Where is the bulk of ATP formed?

A

The electron transport chain

81
Q

Movement of ___ down the electron transport chain is used to synthesize ___.

A

electrons, ATP

82
Q

Chain of molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

A

Electron transport system

83
Q

In the ETC, what kind of reactions do molecules undergo, going from high to low energy?

A

Oxidation-reduction reactions

84
Q

What is the terminal electron acceptor in the ETC?

A

O2

85
Q

What happens in the ETC and the Krebs cycle when low oxygen is available?

A

The ETC backs up and the Krebs cycle stops

86
Q

What is synthesized when low oxygen is available?

A

Lactate

87
Q

Is aerobic glucose catabolism or anaerobic more efficient?

A

Aerobic

88
Q

What chemical conversion allows muscles to operate in low oxygen?

A

Pyruvate to lactate

89
Q

Where is glycogen stored in the body?

A

The liver and kidneys

90
Q

What three substrates are needed to synthesize new glucose?

A

Glycerol, lactate, and amino acids

91
Q

In what chemical form is most energy stored as?

A

Triglycerides

92
Q

Where are most triglycerides stored?

A

Adipocytes

93
Q

Nonpolar molecules can pass through membranes easily. T or F?

A

True

94
Q

Ions and polar molecules can pass through membranes easily. T or F?

A

False

95
Q

The difference in particle concentration between the inside and the outside of the cell.

A

Concentration gradient

96
Q

A force caused by unequal distribution of anions and cations across the cell membrane.

A

Membrane potential (Vm)

97
Q

At rest, is the inside of a cell more negative or positive than the outside?

A

Negative

98
Q

What two factors does the direction of driving force depend on?

A

Polarity of the cell and charge on the particles

99
Q

What two factors does the magnitude of driving force depend on?

A

Strength of the membrane potential and the amount of change on the particle

100
Q

The magnitude of the electrochemical driving force is equal to (if forces are acting in same direction)…

A

The sum of the chemical force and the electrical force.

101
Q

The magnitude of the electrochemical driving force is equal to (if the forces are actin gin opposite directions)…

A

The larger force minus the smaller force

102
Q

The hypothetical membrane potential when electrical force equals chemical force and are acting in opposite directions.

A

Equilibrium potential (Ex)

103
Q

When does the driving force equal zero?

A

When Vm=Ex

104
Q

If Vm is weaker than Ex?

A

The net electrochemical force is moving out of the cell

105
Q

If Vm is stronger than Ex?

A

The net electrochemical force is moving into the cell

106
Q

What equation is used to calculate the equilibrium potential?

A

The Nernst Equation

107
Q

What three factors affect the rate of diffusion?

A

Magnitude of driving force (DeltaC), membrane surface area, and membrane permeability

108
Q

What law describes membrane permeability/ diffusion?

A

Fick’s Law of Diffusion

109
Q

What do the variables represent? Net flux= PA (DeltaC)

A

P is a coefficient of permeability, A is the membrane surface area, and DeltaC is the magnitude of the driving force

110
Q

What are the types of passive diffusion?

A

Simple and facilitated

111
Q

The use of the GLUT4 is passive or active transport?

A

Passive, it is a carrier protein (facilitates diffusion)

112
Q

What are the two types of channels?

A

Aquaporins and ion channels

113
Q

What are the three types of ion channels?

A

Leak, gated, and bidirectional

114
Q

A type of membrane protein, functions as a transporter and an enzyme, can harness energy, has specific binding sites, demonstrates saturation

A

Characteristics of a pump

115
Q

What are the two types of active transport?

A

Primary and secondary

116
Q

Energy comes from a high-energy compound, usually from ATP hydrolysis

A

Primary active transport

117
Q

Energy is released from ion diffusion, which drives a pump, diffusion results from transport of ion

A

Secondary active transport

118
Q

Sodium-linked glucose pump is an example of what?

A

Secondary active transport

119
Q

A pump that transports different molecules in the same direction at the same time

A

A symporter aka cotransporter

120
Q

A pump involved in secondary transport of two or more molecules in opposite directions

A

A antiporter aka countertransporter

121
Q

What drives secondary active transport?

A

Electrochemical gradient of another solute

122
Q

Total solute concentration of a solution

A

Osmolarity

123
Q

1/1000 of an osmole

A

milliosmole (mOsm)

124
Q

What is the osmolarity of ICF/ECF?

A

~300 mOsm

125
Q

Water gradient across a membrane, caused by impermeant solutes

A

Tonicity

126
Q

Less than 300 mOsm

A

Hypo-osmotic

127
Q

More than 300 mOsm

A

Hyperosmotic

128
Q

Concentration of impermeant solutes relative to ICF

A

Tonicity

129
Q

What are the three types of endocytosis?

A

Phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated transport

130
Q

Transport of macromolecules across the cell

A

Transcytosis

131
Q

Review slides on insulin secretion by beta cells

A

Ch4 80 and 81

132
Q

What are the two general mechanisms of intercellular communication?

A

Direct: gap junctions

or Indirect: chemical messengers

133
Q

What are the three functional classes of chemical messengers?

A

Paracrine, neurotransmitter, and hormone

134
Q

For a lipophobic ligand where would the receptors be located?

A

Outside of the membrane

135
Q

For a lipophilic ligand where would the receptors be located?

A

Inside the membrane

136
Q

What is a lipophobic ligand’s general action of target response?

A

Enzyme activation

137
Q

What is a lipophilic ligand’s general action of target response?

A

Gene activation

138
Q

Amino acids are

A

Lipophobic

139
Q

Amines are

A

Lipophobic

140
Q

Peptides/proteins are

A

Lipophobic

141
Q

Steroids are

A

Lipophilic

142
Q

Eicosanoids are

A

Lipophilic

143
Q

What is the most abundant type of ligand?

A

Peptide and protein messengers

144
Q

In the transport of messengers through diffusion ligands are degraded quickly or slowly?

A

Quickly

145
Q

In the transport of messengers through the bloodstream _____ ligands are dissolved in plasma.

A

Lipophobic

146
Q

In the transport of messengers through the bloodstream ___ ligands are bound to a carrier protein.

A

Lipophilic

147
Q

Messengers dissolved in plasma have a short or long half-life?

A

Short

148
Q

Messengers bound to plasma proteins have a long or short half-life?

A

Long

149
Q

Chemical that binds to a receptor and its action mimics the normal response

A

Agonist

150
Q

Chemical that binds to a receptor and its action is the opposite of that to an agonist

A

Antagonist

151
Q

ADH and oxytocin are hormones of the ____

A

Posterior pituitary

152
Q

Hypothalamic tropic hormones have an S or an R?

A

R

153
Q

Anterior pituitary tropic hormones have an S or an R?

A

S

154
Q

Melatonin is secreted from the ___

A

Pineal gland

155
Q

T4, T3, and Calcitonin are from the ____

A

Thyroid gland

156
Q

Regulates calcium levels in the blood.

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

157
Q

Secretes thymosin, which regulates T-cell function

A

Thymus

158
Q

Adrenocorticoids are secreted in the ____

A

Adrenal gland

159
Q

Aldosterone, cortisol, and adrogens are all examples of ____

A

Andrenocorticoids

160
Q

Cells of the pancreas that furnish and secrete pancreatic enzymes

A

Acinar and duct cells

161
Q

Cells of the pancreas that secrete pancreatic polypeptides

A

F cells

162
Q

Cells of the pancreas that secrete somatostatin

A

Delta cells

163
Q

Cells of the pancreas that secrete insulin

A

Beta cells

164
Q

Cells of the pancreas that secrete glucagon

A

Alpha cells

165
Q

Alpha and Beta cells are considered ____

A

Islets of Langerhans

166
Q

What are the three mechanisms of secretion stimulus

A

Neural, hormonal, and humoral

167
Q

Stimuli from senses are considered ___

A

Afferent

168
Q

Stimuli from the somatic or autonomic systems are considered ___

A

Efferent