Provide communication between cells of the body through the release of hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine system
Provides communication between cells of the body through electrical signals and the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps between certain cells
Nervous system
Supports the body; allows voluntary movement of the body; allows facial expressions
Musculoskeletal system
Transports molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream
Cardiovascular system
Bring oxygen into the body and eliminates carbon dioxide from the body
Respiratory system
Filters the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, and ion concentrations; eliminates wastes
Urinary system
Break down food and absorb it into the body
Gastrointestinal system
Generate offspring
Reproductive system
Defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells
Immune system
Protects the body from the external environment
Integumentary system
The philosophical attempt to describe things in terms of their apparent purpose, direct principle, or goal.
Teleology
Relating to theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic terms
Mechanistic
Types of muscle cells
smooth, cardiac, skeletal
Types of connective tissue cells
fibroblasts, bone cells, blood cells
Types of epithelial cells
basement membrane cells, lumen cells
Glands that secrete their products (hormones) directly into the blood rather than through a duct
Endocrine glands
Glands that secrete their products into ducts; includes sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and many other of the digestive system
Exocrine glands
Makes up 20% of body weight; Includes plasma, fluid in stomach and intestines, fluid surrounding the brain, joint fluid, and lymph fluid
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Makes up 40% of body weight; Includes cells
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Makes up 40% of body weight; Includes bones and tissue matter
Solid matter
A solution that bathes and surrounds the tissue cells of multicellular animals; Is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and transcellular fluid
Interstitial fluid (ISF)
Who came up with postulates on homeostasis control?
Walter Bradford Cannon
Cannon’s postulate #1
Nervous regulation of the internal environment
Cannon’s postulate #2
Tonic control of activity
Cannon’s postulate #3
Antagonistic control of activity
Cannon’s postulate #4
Chemical signals have different effects on different tissues
Nerve impulses that maintain a normal tonus or level of activity in muscle or other effector organs
Tonic control
The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes
Homeostasis
What is the general term for the inability to maintain or quickly re-establish homeostasis?
Disease
What is the primary mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis?
Negative feedback control
Four basic types of biomolecules
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Amino Acids/Proteins, and Nucleotides
Three types of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
Five classes of lipids
Triglycerides, ketones, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids
What are steroids derived from?
Cholesterol
Polymers of nucleotides
Nucleic acids
Polymers of amino acids
Proteins
Generally 2-50 amino acids
Peptides
More than 50 amino acids
Proteins
The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell
Metabolism
Reactions involved in energy storage and use
Energy metabolism
Processes proceed in the direction that spreads out energy
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Catabolic reactions are…
exergonic
Anabolic reactions are…
endergonic
Last slide
19
What is the law that states that increasing reactant concentration pushes a reaction forward, while increasing product concentration pushes a reaction in reverse?
Law of Mass Action
Are enzymes changed in a reaction?
No
Are enzymes consumed in the reaction?
No
Are enzymes specific for one set of substrates or a group of similar substrates?
Yes !
What are the two models of substrate specificity?
Lock-and-key model and Induced-fit model
In this model of substrate specificity the active site approximately fits substrates; as the substrate begins to bind, a conformational change in the enzyme allows it to fit better
Induced-fit model
Molecules that bind to proteins
Ligands
Through what type of bonds to ligands bind to proteins?
Hydrogen and ionic bonds
Ions or molecules required by an enzyme for the enzyme to be active
Cofactors (usually ions) and coenzymes (usually organic / vitamins)
Organic molecules that can transfer chemical groups during chemical reactions.
Coenzymes
What are the two types of enzyme regulation?
Allosteric and covalent
Which type of enzyme regulation involves altering the affinity or catalytic rate of the enzyme?
Allosteric regulation
Which type of enzyme regulation involves an enzyme changing from an inactive state to an active state upon the formation or breaking of covalent bonds?
Covalent regulation
What is the most common chemical group used in covalent modulation?
Phosphate group
Which type of enzyme regulation is mediated through additional enzymes?
Covalent regulation
Does the addition of an allosteric modulator require a separate enzyme?
No
Energy from what type of reaction (endergonic or exergonic) is used to synthesize ATP?
Exergonic
Which type of phosphorylation requires electron transport chain?
Oxidative phosphorylation
OxPhos
ADP + Pi > ATP
Sub-levelPhos
X-P + ADP > X + ATP
Review equations on slide
61
In glycolysis what is broken down?
Glucose
Where does glycolysis take place?
In the cytosol
What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?
2 ATP
Is glucose consumed in glycolysis?
No
Is CO2 produced in glycolysis?
No
What cycle comes after glycolysis?
The Krebs Cycle
What occurs during the linking step bertween glycolysis and Krebs cycle?
Pyruvate is converted ti acetyl CoA
Is the glycolysis Krebs cycle linking step bidirectional or unidirectional?
Unidirectional
In the linking step between glycolysis and Krebs cycle __ NADH is produced per __ molecule(s) of pyruvate and __ molecule(s) per glucose.
1, 1, 2
How many CO2 molecules are produced per pyruvate molecule in the linking step?
1
What is the initial substrate of the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl CoA
Review metabolism products
slide 71
Oxidative phosphorylation includes ____ and the ____.
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
How many ATPs are gained in OxPhos?
4 (net gain)
Where is the bulk of ATP formed?
The electron transport chain
Movement of ___ down the electron transport chain is used to synthesize ___.
electrons, ATP
Chain of molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Electron transport system
In the ETC, what kind of reactions do molecules undergo, going from high to low energy?
Oxidation-reduction reactions
What is the terminal electron acceptor in the ETC?
O2
What happens in the ETC and the Krebs cycle when low oxygen is available?
The ETC backs up and the Krebs cycle stops
What is synthesized when low oxygen is available?
Lactate
Is aerobic glucose catabolism or anaerobic more efficient?
Aerobic
What chemical conversion allows muscles to operate in low oxygen?
Pyruvate to lactate
Where is glycogen stored in the body?
The liver and kidneys
What three substrates are needed to synthesize new glucose?
Glycerol, lactate, and amino acids
In what chemical form is most energy stored as?
Triglycerides
Where are most triglycerides stored?
Adipocytes
Nonpolar molecules can pass through membranes easily. T or F?
True
Ions and polar molecules can pass through membranes easily. T or F?
False
The difference in particle concentration between the inside and the outside of the cell.
Concentration gradient
A force caused by unequal distribution of anions and cations across the cell membrane.
Membrane potential (Vm)
At rest, is the inside of a cell more negative or positive than the outside?
Negative
What two factors does the direction of driving force depend on?
Polarity of the cell and charge on the particles
What two factors does the magnitude of driving force depend on?
Strength of the membrane potential and the amount of change on the particle
The magnitude of the electrochemical driving force is equal to (if forces are acting in same direction)…
The sum of the chemical force and the electrical force.
The magnitude of the electrochemical driving force is equal to (if the forces are actin gin opposite directions)…
The larger force minus the smaller force
The hypothetical membrane potential when electrical force equals chemical force and are acting in opposite directions.
Equilibrium potential (Ex)
When does the driving force equal zero?
When Vm=Ex
If Vm is weaker than Ex?
The net electrochemical force is moving out of the cell
If Vm is stronger than Ex?
The net electrochemical force is moving into the cell
What equation is used to calculate the equilibrium potential?
The Nernst Equation
What three factors affect the rate of diffusion?
Magnitude of driving force (DeltaC), membrane surface area, and membrane permeability
What law describes membrane permeability/ diffusion?
Fick’s Law of Diffusion
What do the variables represent? Net flux= PA (DeltaC)
P is a coefficient of permeability, A is the membrane surface area, and DeltaC is the magnitude of the driving force
What are the types of passive diffusion?
Simple and facilitated
The use of the GLUT4 is passive or active transport?
Passive, it is a carrier protein (facilitates diffusion)
What are the two types of channels?
Aquaporins and ion channels
What are the three types of ion channels?
Leak, gated, and bidirectional
A type of membrane protein, functions as a transporter and an enzyme, can harness energy, has specific binding sites, demonstrates saturation
Characteristics of a pump
What are the two types of active transport?
Primary and secondary
Energy comes from a high-energy compound, usually from ATP hydrolysis
Primary active transport
Energy is released from ion diffusion, which drives a pump, diffusion results from transport of ion
Secondary active transport
Sodium-linked glucose pump is an example of what?
Secondary active transport
A pump that transports different molecules in the same direction at the same time
A symporter aka cotransporter
A pump involved in secondary transport of two or more molecules in opposite directions
A antiporter aka countertransporter
What drives secondary active transport?
Electrochemical gradient of another solute
Total solute concentration of a solution
Osmolarity
1/1000 of an osmole
milliosmole (mOsm)
What is the osmolarity of ICF/ECF?
~300 mOsm
Water gradient across a membrane, caused by impermeant solutes
Tonicity
Less than 300 mOsm
Hypo-osmotic
More than 300 mOsm
Hyperosmotic
Concentration of impermeant solutes relative to ICF
Tonicity
What are the three types of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated transport
Transport of macromolecules across the cell
Transcytosis
Review slides on insulin secretion by beta cells
Ch4 80 and 81
What are the two general mechanisms of intercellular communication?
Direct: gap junctions
or Indirect: chemical messengers
What are the three functional classes of chemical messengers?
Paracrine, neurotransmitter, and hormone
For a lipophobic ligand where would the receptors be located?
Outside of the membrane
For a lipophilic ligand where would the receptors be located?
Inside the membrane
What is a lipophobic ligand’s general action of target response?
Enzyme activation
What is a lipophilic ligand’s general action of target response?
Gene activation
Amino acids are
Lipophobic
Amines are
Lipophobic
Peptides/proteins are
Lipophobic
Steroids are
Lipophilic
Eicosanoids are
Lipophilic
What is the most abundant type of ligand?
Peptide and protein messengers
In the transport of messengers through diffusion ligands are degraded quickly or slowly?
Quickly
In the transport of messengers through the bloodstream _____ ligands are dissolved in plasma.
Lipophobic
In the transport of messengers through the bloodstream ___ ligands are bound to a carrier protein.
Lipophilic
Messengers dissolved in plasma have a short or long half-life?
Short
Messengers bound to plasma proteins have a long or short half-life?
Long
Chemical that binds to a receptor and its action mimics the normal response
Agonist
Chemical that binds to a receptor and its action is the opposite of that to an agonist
Antagonist
ADH and oxytocin are hormones of the ____
Posterior pituitary
Hypothalamic tropic hormones have an S or an R?
R
Anterior pituitary tropic hormones have an S or an R?
S
Melatonin is secreted from the ___
Pineal gland
T4, T3, and Calcitonin are from the ____
Thyroid gland
Regulates calcium levels in the blood.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Secretes thymosin, which regulates T-cell function
Thymus
Adrenocorticoids are secreted in the ____
Adrenal gland
Aldosterone, cortisol, and adrogens are all examples of ____
Andrenocorticoids
Cells of the pancreas that furnish and secrete pancreatic enzymes
Acinar and duct cells
Cells of the pancreas that secrete pancreatic polypeptides
F cells
Cells of the pancreas that secrete somatostatin
Delta cells
Cells of the pancreas that secrete insulin
Beta cells
Cells of the pancreas that secrete glucagon
Alpha cells
Alpha and Beta cells are considered ____
Islets of Langerhans
What are the three mechanisms of secretion stimulus
Neural, hormonal, and humoral
Stimuli from senses are considered ___
Afferent
Stimuli from the somatic or autonomic systems are considered ___
Efferent