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VPHY > exam #2: chapter 11 > Flashcards

exam #2: chapter 11 Flashcards

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1
Q

3 types of extracellular signaling

A

-neurotransmission
-local signaling (autocrine, paracrine)
-endocrine signaling

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2
Q

how are hormones carried in the body and what do they do?

A

carried via the blood and they regulate body metabolism, growth, and reproduction

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3
Q

how endocrine signaling works

A

cell produces hormone –> hormone released –> travels through blood –> reaches target cell

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4
Q

prohormones and prehormones

A

pro: inactivate hormone precursor molecules
pre: large, so clipped down to smaller activated size

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5
Q

how do the nervous and endocrine systems overlap? example?

A

in terms of chemical transmitters and receptor proteins
ex. dopamine and epinephrine act as both NT and hormone

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6
Q

most target tissues are regulated by ____ and the downstream effects may be _____

A

multiple hormones (usually 2) ; complementary or antagonistic (usually antagonistic)

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7
Q

tissue response depends on what?
-physiological ranges
-pharmalogical ranges

A

plasma concentrations of hormones
-sensitization or upregulation
-desensitization or down regulation

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8
Q

classification of hormones: chemical structures (3 types)

A

amino acid derivates
peptides and proteins
steroids

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9
Q

amino acid derivative hormones

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenal medulla)
thyroid hormones (tyrosine)
melatonin (pineal gland)

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10
Q

peptide and protein hormones

A

hypothalamic and pituitary hormones
insulin and glucagon (pancreas)
parathyroid hormone

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11
Q

steroid hormones (2 types)

A

corticosteroids (adrenal cortex)
sex steroids (gonads)

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12
Q

steroid hormones are synthesized from what? they do what?

A

synthesized from cholesterol
extracellular signaling

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13
Q

classification of hormones: physical properties (2 types)

A

hydrophilic and hydrophobic

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14
Q

hydrophilic hormones interact with ___ at ____
examples

A

cell-surface receptors ; target tissues
-all peptide and protein hormones
-epinephrine and norepinephrine

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15
Q

hydrophobic hormones interact with ___ at ____
examples

A

intracellular receptors ; target tissues
-steroid hormones
-thyroid hormones

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16
Q

enzyme-linked receptors
-receptors are ____ for ____
-act?
-hormone examples

A

-receptors are enzymes themselves for hormones
-act through intracellular 2nd messengers (cAMP, Ca2+, kinases)
-insulin, growth factors

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17
Q

G-protein-coupled receptors
-act?
-hormone examples

A

-act through intracellular 2nd messengers (cAMP, Ca2+, kinases)
-epinephrine, norepinephrine

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18
Q

intracellular receptors
-act?
-hormone examples

A

-act as transcription factors in the nucleus
-steroids, thyroid hormones

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19
Q

islets of Langerhans
-comprise what?
-2 types of cells that secrete what?

A

-comprise the endocrine portion of the pancreas
-alpha-cells secrete glucagon
-beta-cells secrete insulin
^both regulate blood sugar

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20
Q

changes in blood glucose levels influence what in the pancreas?

A

the secretion of pancreatic hormones

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21
Q

pancreatic hormones regulate ___ and influence ___
-2 types of hormones
-target tissues

A

blood glucose levels ; cellular metabolism
-insulin –> anabolism (energy storage)
-glucagon –> catabolism (energy usage)
-target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipocytes (fat cells)

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22
Q

anabolism v.s catabolism

A

anabolism: energy using, encourage cells to take up glucose from the blood
catabolism: energy generating, breaks down large molecules in order to secrete glucose into the blood

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23
Q

the insulin receptor is what type of receptor?

A

a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) which is the most prevalent type of enzyme-linked cell surface receptor

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24
Q

receptor tyrosine kinase
-what are kinases?
-tyrosine kinases attach what and where?
-activated insulin receptor phosphorylates what?

A

-kinases are enzymes that phosphorylate proteins
-tyrosine kinases attach phosphate head groups to tyrosine residues within proteins
-activated insulin receptor phosphorylates itself

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25
insulin receptor activation (4 steps) 1. two ____ form ___ prior to ____ 2. ___ binding causes _____ 3. active _____ of receptor _____ signaling molecule 4.active signaling molecule causes cascade of effects = ____ uptake and ____ reactions
1. two half-receptors form dimer prior to insulin binding 2. insulin binding causes autophosphorylation of receptor 3. active tyrosine kinase of receptor phosphorylates signaling muscle 4. active signaling molecule causes cascade of effects = glucose uptake and anabolic reactions
26
high blood glucose levels increase secretion of ____ from the ____
insulin ; pancreas
27
insulin-R activation at target tissues: -increases uptake of ____ in ____ -increases ____ synthesis (___-->___) in ____ -increases ___ stored in ____ (___-->___)
-increases uptake of blood glucose (GLUT4 recruitment) in muscle and fat -increases glycogen synthesis (glucose --> glycogen) in liver and muscle -increases fat stored in adipocytes (glucose --> triglycerides)
28
hepatocytes express ___ transporters -move glucose into liver cells when ___ is high -move glucose out of liver cells when ___ is low
GLUT2 [Glc]blood
29
[glucose] always stays ___ in the cell and ___ outside of the cell because it's _____ effect changes it to glycogen or triglycerides
low high metabolic
30
insulin-responsive ___ recruitment only occurs in ____ and ___ muscle and ___ tissue
GLUT4 skeletal, cardiac adipose
31
when [insulin]blood increases, what happens to blood glucose?
>95% of blood glucose is taken up by muscle and fat tissues
32
major effect of insulin at the liver: to decrease ____ and increase ____
decrease gluconeogensis increase glycogen synthesis
33
major effect of glucagon at the liver: to increase ___ and ____
glycogenolysis and glycogen synthesis
34
exercise increases ___ and decreases ____ due to ____
increases [glucagon]blood decreases [insulin]blood due to lowered blood glucose levels
35
insulin resistance: what causes it?
insulin receptor desensitization = less activation
36
metabolic syndrome -what is it? -examples -how many do you need to have metabolic syndrome?
-cluster of symptoms that put you at a predisposed risk for diabetes -ex: high blood pressure, excess body fat, high cholesterol -3 or more symptoms
37
type I and type II diabetes: similarities
both have increased levels of blood glucose and experience the same symptoms
38
type I and type II diabetes: differences
type I: autoimmune disease, not enough insulin produced to take up glucose when levels of glucose are high type II: target tissues won't take up glucose
39
what organ has direct control over circulating blood glucose levels?
pancreas
40
HPA: ____ of endocrine systems -which axis? -integration of ___ and ___ systems
"mater control" -hypothalamus/pituitary axis -integration of neurons and endocrine systems
41
HPA: the pituitary gland (another name) -2 lobes (other names), release what?
(hypophysis) -anterior lobe (adenohypophysis): hormonal regulation by the hypothalamus, hormones -posterior lobe (neurohypophysis): neural extension of the hypothalamus, ADH and oxytocin
42
____and _____ nuclei of the hypothalamus produce two hormones down the ____ to the _____
supraoptic and paraventricular hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract posterior pituitary
43
when hypothalamic neurons are stimulated, their _____ in the _____ release these ____ into the general circulation
nerve endings posterior pituitary hormones
44
two hormones of the posterior pituitary
-oxytocin: uterine contractions during labor, contraction of mammary glands during lactation -ADH or vasopressin: water reabsorption by the kidneys
45
are releasing or inhibiting hormones produced in the hypothalamus? effect on anterior pituitary: -corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates secretion of? -thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates secretion of?
both -CRH: stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) -TRH: stimulates secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
46
hypothalamic ____ secrete these hormones into a capillary/venule system known as the ____ system
nerve endings hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal
47
what do hypothalamic hormones do? how do they work?
regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones these pituitary hormones then travel through the bloodstream to effector organs, including other endocrine glands
48
anterior pituitary hormones -what type of hormones? -what kind of feedback inhibition do they have and why? -____ can influence the activity of _____ this influencing downstream ___ systems
-trophic hormones: nourishing action on target tissues -negative feedback inhibition, a common theme in target gland-mediated regulation of the anterior pituitary and/or hypothamus -higher brain centers ; hypothalamic nuclei ; endocrine
49
2 types of anterior pituitary hormones: promote what and where? -thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) -adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
-TSH: promotes production and secretion of T3 and T4 in the thyroid -ACTH: promotes secretion of glucocorticoids in the adrenal cortex
50
adrenal medulla -secretes which hormones? -stimulated by what?
-epinephrine (mainly) and norepinephrine into the blood -sympathetic nervous system
51
adrenal cortex -secretes what hormones? -arranged in how many layers/zones? -1 layer secretes ____, other 2 layers secrete ____
-secretes corticosteroids, or steroid hormones, into the blood -3 -mineralocorticoids ; glucocorticoids and sex steroids
52
catecholamine hormones released by the adrenal medulla -sympathodrenal effects (cardiac output, heart rate, alertness, respiratory rate, metabolic rate, blood vessel constriction) -metabolic effects (increase what two things, where?)
epinephrine and norepinephrine -increase all, except decrease (dilate) blood vessel constriction -glycogenesis in the liver and lipolysis in the adipose tissue
53
epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla mediators its effects at target tissues via ___ that increase ____ -2 types
activation of GPCRs ; intracellular second messengers -cAMP (beta receptor) -calcium (alpha receptor)
54
cyclic-AMP: B-adrenergic receptors -7 steps
beta receptor --> G-protein --> adenylyl cyclase --> cAMPi --> protein kinase A --> other kinases --> downstream effects
55
Ca2+: alpha-adrenergic receptors -8 steps
alpha receptor --> G-protein --> PLC --> IP3 --> Ca2+i --> Ca/calmodulin --> kinases ---> downstream effects
56
mineralocorticoids: regulation of ___ and ___ glucocorticoids: regulation of ___ and ____ (___ effects) sex steroids: weak ____ that supplement ____
Na+, K+ glucose, other metabolites (catabolic) androgens, gonadal hormones
57
mineralocorticoids: aldosterone -increases __ and __ retention as well as __ excretion in the kidneys --> increases ___ and ___; balances ___
increases Na+ and H2O retention as well as K+ excretion in the kidneys --> increases blood volume and pressure ; balances electrolytes
58
glucocorticoids: cortisol increases ___ by stimulating ___ and inhibiting ___ in the tissues; it also increases ___ in the blood by stimulating ___
increases blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis and inhibiting glucose utilization in the tissues ; it also increases free fatty acid levels in the blood by stimulating lipolysis
59
steroid hormones -synthesized from ___ -produced in and secrete by the ___ and ___ -____-fused ring structures -travel through the blood stream by ___ -bind to and activate ____ which then function as ____ -may also mediate ___ responses in target tissues
-cholesterol -adrenal cortex, gonads -hydrophobic -binding to carrier proteins -intracellular nuclear hormone receptors, transcription factors -non-genomic
60
thyroid gland: T4 and T3 -secreted by __ -regulation of __, __, and __ -stimulated by __ released from the __
-follicular cells -body metabolism, growth, development -TSH, anterior pituitary
61
thyroid gland: calcitonin -secreted by __ -regulation of __
-parafollicular cells -blood calcium levels
62
production of thyroid hormones -3 steps -thyroid follicular cells transport ___ from the blood into the ___ -___ is attached to tyrosine residues on thyroglubin
-hypothalamus secretes TRH --> anterior pituitary secretes TSH --> thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 -iodide, colloid -iodine
63
thyroid hormones: T3 and T4 -derivates of __ -hydrophilic or hydrophobic? how do they get through a membrane? -TBG -target tissues (2 types): promote what?
-tyrosine -hydrophobic, diffuse through membranes -TBG = carrier-protein for T4 in blood -liver: promotes glucose metabolism and gluconeogenesis -skeletal and cardiac muscle, bones, and brain: promotes normal growth and development
64
thyroid disfunction -hypothyroid -hyperthyroid -goiter (2 types)
-hypo: decreased levels of T4 in blood -hyper: increased levels of T4 in blood -goiter: abnormal growth of the thyroid gland (iodine insufficiency and Graves' disease)
65
thyroid dysfunction: iodine insufficiency -hypothyroid or hyperthyroid condition? -___ levels of circulating T4 --> __ negative feedback on anterior pituitary --> elevated ___--> trophic effects on ___--> goiter
-hypothyroid -low levels of circulating T4 --> no negative feedback on anterior pituitary --> elevated TSH--> trophic effects on thyroid gland--> goiter
66
thyroid dysfunction: Graves' disease -hypothyroid or hyperthyroid condition? -autoantibodies mimic __ effects at thyroid --> ___ T4 in blood, but autoantibodies circumvent __ negative feedback loop--> goiter
-hyperthyroid -autoantibodies mimic TSH effects at thyroid --> excessive T4 in blood, but autoantibodies circumvent normal negative feedback loop--> goiter

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