Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

BIO 110 > exam 2 (lecture slides) > Flashcards

exam 2 (lecture slides) Flashcards

unfinished- only went up to the 3rd chapter of the unit (cell membrane)

1
Q

what are transport vesicles

A

helps move materials, especially proteins from one organelle to another

  • distributed by the rough er
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what is the endoplasmic reticulum + the 2 types

A
  • cell’s “highway”
  • membrane of interconnected tubules that carry stuff around the cell

two types:

rough ER: synthesis and packaging of proteins
- bumpy because ribosomes are attached to it

smooth ER: has enzymes that help create and package lipids and also detoxifying substances

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what are centrosomes + centrioles

A

kinda look like pasta, organize microtubules out of proteins

  • in animal cells, centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

plants don’t have centrioles, only centrosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

selective permeability in the cell membrane

A

chooses what goes in and out

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

what is the cytoplasm

A

solution of water and nutrients that fills the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what is the cytoskeleton

A

inside the cytoplasm- bunch of protein strands that reinforce the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

what is nucleoplasm

A

nucleus has its own cytoplasm (premium luxury environment)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

cis and trans Golgi apparatus

A

cis: means same
- part of the Golgi apparatus nearest to ER (endoplasmic reticulum), functions primarily in receiving and sorting molecules

trans: means opposite
- part of Golgi farthest from ER, functions in final modifications of proteins before they’re shipped out`

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

what is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

“post office of cell city”

  • processes proteins + packages them before sending them where they need to go
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

what are Golgi bodies and how is their function different from the Golgi apparatus?

A
  • stacks of membranous layers within the Golgi apparatus (Golgi apparatus layers)
  • often used interchangeably though

cut up large proteins into smaller hormones and combine proteins and carbs to make various molecules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

what are lysosomes?

A

sacs of enzymes that break down cellular waste and debris from outside cell to turn into simpler components for inside cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

what are vesicles

A

sacs that little goodies are packaged into

  • used to ship stuff within cell or outside cell
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

what is autophagy?

A

lysosomes use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

what are vacuoles and the 3 different types of them

A

“diverse maintenance compartments” - storage cells that perform variety of functions

food vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis (when cell engulfs another cell), help digest and break down ingested food

contractile vacuoles: found in freshwater protists, help maintain internal water balance by pumping excess water out of cell

central vacuoles: large ones found in many mature plant cells, store water and nutrients, provide structural support + other functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

what is the function of the mitochondria?

A

cellular respiration!

  • use oxygen to generate ATP
  • cells that need more power (such as muscle cells) have more mitochondria in them
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for mitochondria?

A

maternal b/c mitochondria self replicates so DNA never mixes with the father’s

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what is unique about mitochondria compared to other organelles?

A

acts like its own cell, does its own replication and even has some DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

function of the chloroplasts

A

also energy!!

  • sites of photosynthesis
  • found in plants and algae
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

3 similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts

A
  • enveloped by a double membrane
  • contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
  • grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

endosymbiont theory

A

idea that some organelles inside eukaryotic cells (like mitochondria and chloroplasts) were once independent, free-living bacteria

  • bacteria engulfed by larger cells, instead of being digested, formed mutually beneficial relationship with the host cell
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what are cristae

A

folds in the inner membrane of a mitochondria

  • present a large surface area for enzymes to synthesize ATP
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what are chloroplasts known for

A

site of photosynthesis

  • contain green pigment chlorophyll
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

3 things plants contain that animal cells don’t

A
  • cell wall
  • plastids
  • large vacuole
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

purpose of the large vacuole in plant cells

A

used for storage but also:

pushes water to create turgor pressure so cell stays nice and rigid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

what are plastids? (difference from chloroplasts)

A

group of plant organelles (such as chloroplasts) in cytoplasm of plant cell that contain pigment or food

most important type of plastid: chloroplast

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

2 main parts of a chloroplast

A

thylakoids: membranous sacs that capture light to turn into ATP solar panels of the cell
- stack to form granum

stroma: internal fluid that contains enzymes to use chemical energy to produce sugar kitchen of the cell, uses products to assemble

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

do plant cells have mitochondria?

A

yes, they have both mitochondria and chloroplast (chloroplasts are used for photosynthesis only)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

how are mitochondria and chloroplasts similar?

A
  • both have double-membrane
  • have their own DNA and manufacture ribosomes
  • grow and divide independently of cell division
  • energy producing organelles
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

photosynthesis (chloroplasts) vs. cellular respiration (mitochondria)

A
  • photosynthesis builds glucose by capturing energy from the sun and stores the glucose for later use
  • cellular respiration breaks down glucose to ATP and for use within the cell
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

peroxisomes

A

“clean-up crew”

  • responsible for breaking down toxic substances, primarily hydrogen peroxide
  • destroys alcohol by removing hydrogen atoms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of fibers that organizes structures & activities in the cell

  • cell mobility usually requires interaction with of the cytoskeleton w/ motor proteins

3 components:
- microtubules
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

motor proteins

A

specialized proteins that move along the cytoskeleton, carrying cellular cargo, such as organelles, molecules, or other components, to specific locations within the cell

THEY MOVERSSS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

microtubules

A

“highways of the cell”

  • thickest of the 3
  • long, tube-like structures made of protein that serve as tracks or roads for motor proteins to move along (organelle movements)
  • maintain cell shape, help with cell motility (like in cilia and flagella)
  • aid in chromosome movements in cell division

found in all eukaryotic cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

cilia and flagella

A

microtubule containing extensions that project from some cells

cilia: present in lung + throat cells to push up mucus

flagella: present in sperm cells

protozoans move around using cilia and flagella

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

dynein

A

motor protein which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagella

  • known for moving cellular structures and cargo along microtubules

HAS THEM 2 FEET AND IT WALKS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

microfilaments

A
  • thinnest of the 3, thin solid rods built from molecules of actin (also a globular protein)
  • helps support shape, cell motility, cell shape, and cell division, muscle contractions and changes in cell shape

found in all eukaryotic cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

intermediate filaments

A
  • size is between microtubules and microfilaments
  • tension-bearing elements, can take mechanical stress, important for tissues that need to be strong and resilient
  • *not found in ALL eukaryotic cells,
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

myosin

A

protein that plays crucial role in muscle contraction

  • microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
39
Q

pseudopodia

A

“cellular arms” or “temporary extensions” that some cells use to move and capture prey

  • usually in single-celled organisms like amoeba
40
Q

cytoplasmic streaming

A

“cellular traffic flow”

  • movement of cell’s cytoplasm and the materials within it in a coordinated manner to distribute essential substances within the cell
  • driven by actin protein interactions
41
Q

3 layers of plant cell walls

A

primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible, secreted first

middle lamella: thin layer b/w primary walls, containing polysaccharides called pectins

secondary cell wall: (in some cells), added b/w plasma membrane and primary cell wall

42
Q

ECM of animal cells

A
  • animal cells lack cell walls but are covered in extracellular matrix
  • made of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
43
Q

integrins

A

“cellular velcro”

  • proteins on the surface of cells that help stick to and interact with environment
44
Q

tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes (anchoring junctions)

A

tight junctions: “cellular zippers,” connect neighboring tissues tightly to make sure there are no leaks
- ex. present in digestive tract

gap junctions: “communication tunnels,” allow quick communication through openings that allow molecules and ions to pass directly
- ex. present in heart cells

desmosomes: fasten cells together into strong sheets, important in tissues subjected to mechanical stress, like skin and heart muscles

45
Q

meaning of amphipathic molecule and its relation to membrane structure

A

amphipathic: containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

  • cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins, specifically phospholipids which keep the structure intact
46
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

used to refer to the membrane structure as it is a mosaic of proteins molecules bobbing in the fluid bilayer of phospholipids

  • proteins are not randomly distributed, they are in groups that carry out common functions
  • not rigid in the way you would think a cell wall is, can move laterally, packed less and more tightly in some cases
47
Q

factors that affect membrane fluidity (3 factors + give reasons for why)

A
  • membranes with more unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid (because of the kinks, they cannot pack together as closely)
  • as temperature cools, becomes less fluid and more solid
  • cholesterol molecules embedded in membrane - reduce fluidity but prevent total tight packing (helps because when you reduce temperature, membrane won’t solidify as quickly)

membranes must be fluid to work properly

48
Q

membranes are held together by ___________________ bonds

A

weak hydrophobic

49
Q

phospholipids form main fabric of membrane, but ________ determine most of membrane’s functions

A

proteins

  • protein composition of membranes varies among cells within an organism, and among intracellular membranes within a cell
50
Q

2 types of membrane proteins

A

integral proteins: penetrate hydrophobic interior of phospholipid bilayer, some extend partway some completely
- majority are transmembrane proteins: span the entire membrane

peripheral proteins: not embedded in the bilayer at all, but loosely bounded to the top, often exposed partially

51
Q

what are the 6 major functions of membrane proteins?

A
  1. transport: transmembrane proteins can help facilitate movement of molecules
  2. enzymatic activity: membrane proteins can serve as enzymes where they would attach to the active site
  3. signal transduction: membrane protein might have the specific shape needed to bind and relay the message to inside the cell
  4. cell-cell recognition: some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of that cell
  5. intercellular joining: can hook together to form many types of junctions, like gap or tight junctions
  6. attach to cytoskeleton or ECM: microfilaments can be noncovalently bonded to membrane proteins to help maintain cell shape and stabilize location of certain cells
52
Q

how does the polarity of a molecule affect its crossing of the cell membrane?

A
  • nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic and have easy time passing through
  • polar molecules are hydrophilic and have difficulty passing (get stuck) or pass really slowly (including water)

proteins that are built into the membrane can help certain things pass

53
Q

transport proteins + the 2 types

A

help move various substances such as ions and molecules across the membrane

channel proteins: have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel
- ex. aquaporins: little channels that allow water to enter

carrier proteins: bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across membrane

  • transport proteins are specific to the substance they move (so glucose carrier proteins only move glucose)
54
Q

passive transport vs. active transport

A

passive transport: diffusion of substance across membrane with no energy required, goes down concentration gradient (high to low)

active transport: requires energy to move substances, movement against concentration gradient (low to high)

  • if 2 substances in a solute, moves down its OWN concentration gradient, not the overall concentration gradient
55
Q

2 things that the selective permeability of a membrane is dependent on

A
  • natural permeability of a lipid bilayer (i.e. polar and nonpolar)
  • specific transport proteins built into the membrane
56
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion but basically only for water

  • high to low water concentration
  • low to high solute concentration
57
Q

tonicity

A

ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to gain or lose water

  • hypo, hyper, and iso (but you already know this)
58
Q

what is plasmolysis

A

when plants are placed in a hypertonic environment, they lose water and cell shrivels

  • membrane pulls away from cell wall = plant wilts and dies

preferrable condition: turgid

59
Q

what is osmoregulation

A

control of solute concentration and water balance

  • important for organisms that live in very hypo or hypertonic environments
60
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

speeds transport of solute by providing efficient passageway to go through

still passive bc doesn’t go against the concentration gradient

  • ex. channel proteins
61
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A
  • example of active transport
  • exchanges sodium for potassium against the electrochemical gradient
  • pumps sodium ions out and potassium ions in
62
Q

membrane potential

A
  • all cells have voltages (electric potential energy, separation of opposite charges)
  • inside cell is more negative compared to the outside of the cell
  • pumps regulate this by pumping ions using energy

affects the movement of ions

63
Q

electrogenic pump

A

active transport proteins that generate voltage across membrane while pumping ions

  • in animals: Na/K pump
  • in plants, fungi, bacteria: proton pump (actively transports hydrogen ions (H+) out of cell
64
Q

bulk transport + 2 types + 3 types of endocytosis

A
  • large molecules, like polysaccharides and proteins, need to cross inside vesicles CAUSE THEY FAT

exocytosis: vesicles transport materials outside of the cell
- ex. nerve cells releasing neurotransmitters

endocytosis: vesicles transport into the cell
- two types: phagocytosis and pinocytosis

phagocytosis: devouring action, engulfs invader and then destroys

pinocytosis: drinking action, cell membrane folds and creates little pocket to bring things in (for fluids and other small substances)

receptor-mediated endocytosis: vesicle formation is triggered by solute binding to receptors, allows cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances

65
Q

first and second law of thermodynamics

A

first law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy, energy of the universe is constant, energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed

second law of thermodynamics: during every energy transfer, some energy is converted to thermal energy and lost as heat
- every energy transfer or transformation increases entropy (molecular disorder, randomness) of the universe

66
Q

catabolic vs. anabolic pathways

A

catabolic pathways: release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones
- ex. cellular respiration (break down of glucose in the presence of oxygen)

anabolic pathways: consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
- ex. synthesis of proteins from amino acids

67
Q

what is bioenergetics

A

study of how energy flows through living organisms

68
Q

what is metabolism

A

totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of anabolic and catabolic pathways

69
Q

energy definition

A

capacity to cause change

70
Q

what does metabolic pathway mean

A

series of chemical steps that occur inside cell to transform one molecule into another

  • each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme, a macromolecule that speeds up a specific reaction
71
Q

kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, and chemical energy

A

kinetic energy: energy associated with motion
- ex. water gushing through a dam turns turbines

potential energy: energy stored ready for action, has to do with position or structure
- ex. book on shelf can fall and do work or stretched rubber band
- molecules possess energy due to the arrangement of electrons in bonds between their atoms

thermal energy: associated with heat, the more heat something has = more thermal energy

chemical energy: energy stored in bonds b/w molecules
- ex. potential energy stored in food

72
Q

what is thermodynamics

A

study of energy transformations in a collection of matter

73
Q

isolated vs. open system

A

isolated: doesn’t exchange energy or matter with surroundings, “closed box” - ex. liquid in a thermos bottle

open: able to exchange both energy and matter with surroundings
- organisms are open systems, exchange light or food and release heat

74
Q

how to tell if a reaction occurs spontaneously or not?

A
  • by the free energy change

spontaneous: reaction will proceed without an input of energy

*negative ∆G = reaction will be spontaneous

positive ∆G = reaction is NOT spontaneous*

75
Q

enthalpy

A

∆H

  • measure of the total heat content of a system
  • positive = heat is absorbed
  • negative = heat is released
76
Q

entropy

A

∆S

  • measure of disorder in a system (represents dispersion of energy)
  • disordered state = high entropy state
77
Q

Gibbs free energy + equation

A

describes the amount of work that can be done in a system given the thermodynamic environment

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

*temperature in Kelvin

when G is positive = endergonic reaction

when G is negative = exergonic reaction

78
Q

exergonic vs endergonic reactions

A
  • exergonic: energy out, more energy released than absorbed (∆G is negative)
  • endergonic: energy in, more energy absorbed than released (∆G is positive)
79
Q

what is equilibrium

A

point at which forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate

  • state of maximum stability
80
Q

what is energy coupling

A

energy released by one reaction is used to drive another reaction

  • mostly mediated by ATP in cells
81
Q

structure and hydrolysis of ATP

A

composed of: ribose (a sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups

  • ATP stores a lot of energy in it and is broken down by hydrolysis
  • the water and ATP molecule combine releasing a lot of energy, turning ATP into ADP
  • cell “unzipping” ATP when it needs the energy
82
Q

phosphorylation and phosphorylated intermediate

A

phosphorylation: transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule, this transfer is used to modify or activate the target molecule
- common way for cells to control and regulate various processes, such as signaling and enzymatic reactions

phosphorylated intermediate: the molecule with the phosphate tag

83
Q

ATP cycle

A
  • ATP can regenerate (turns into ADP but can be turned back into ATP)
  • energy from catabolism (exergonic, energy-releasing processes) is used to synthesize ATP
  • energy released by ATP hydrolysis is used for cellular work (endergonic, energy-consuming processes)
84
Q

enzyme, catalyst, & substrate

A

enzyme: macromolecule (protein) that acts as a catalyst to speed up a specific reaction (limited to biological reactions and are specific to the one reaction that they carry out)

catalyst: chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction (are not usually specific to a certain reaction, also not limited to biological reactions)

substrate: reactant that an enzyme acts on

85
Q

activation energy

A

free energy of activation

“energy hurdle” that a chemical reaction must overcome to get started

  • initial energy needed to break the bonds of reactants
  • acts like a barrier that determines the rate of spontaneous reactions
86
Q

catalysis

A

process by which a catalyst selectively speeds up a reaction without being consumed itself by lowering the activation energy

87
Q

enzyme-substrate complex & active site

A

“lock and key”

when enzyme binds to its substrate, allowing enzyme to carry out its work

active site: region on enzyme that binds to substrate

88
Q

induced fit (in regards to enzyme-substrate)

A

enzyme changes shape slightly to fit the substrate

  • kinda like how you change grip on hand to shake someone else’s hand
89
Q

rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is increased by increasing ____________

A

substrate concentration

  • at some point substrate concentration is high enough that all enzyme molecules have their active sites engaged = substrate concentration is saturated
90
Q

noncompetitive (allosteric) vs. competitive inhibitors

A

competitive inhibitors: “molecular rivals” that are competing with the substrate to bind to the active site
- increasing substrate concentration can overcome inhibition
- blocks substrate = reduces enzyme productivity

noncompetitive inhibitors: “molecular blockers” that bind to a different site on the enzyme, changing its shape to make it less effective at catalyzing reaction
- ex. toxins, antibiotics, pesticides

91
Q

allosteric regulation (activator and inhibitor)

A
  • “remote control” - controls from a distance, molecule binds elsewhere and changes function and shape of protein

allosteric activator: “protein cheerleader,” encourages the protein’s activity

allosteric inhibitor: when binds, slows down or blocks protein activity

92
Q

cooperatively in enzyme-substrate complexes

A

one substrate molecule binds to an enzyme, and this binding makes it easier for additional substrate molecules to bind to other active sites on the same enzyme

93
Q

feedback inhibition

A

“brake system” for controlling a process

  • when product accumulates to a specific level, “feeds back” to inhibit or slow down earlier step in the process
94
Q

fermentation

A

partial degradation of sugars that occurs without oxygen

  • used when cells need energy but theres not enough oxygen available

BIO 110 (11 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions