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Cognition and the Brain > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Sensory Memory

A

milliseconds to seconds

Iconic memory, echoic memory

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2
Q

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory

A

seconds to minutes

REHERSAL

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3
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

days to years

not really about a passage of time: when falls below level of consciousness
RETRIEVAL

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4
Q

Global Amnesia

A

profound forgetfulness

Regardless of modality of information (names, faces, places, odors and music all forgotten)

Regardless of how information is presented (visual, auditory, olfactory)

Amnesiac syndrome: impaired declarative but spared nondeclarative

amnedia tends to spare nondeclarative memory

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5
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

inability to remember prior memories

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6
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

inability to form new memories

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7
Q

Patient H.M.

A

severe epilepsy; seizures starting at age 15
bilateral removal of MTLs (hippocampus, but posterior hippocampus still present)
William Scoville

Anterograde amnesia – since lesion
Suggests encoding deficit

Retrograde amnesia – prior to lesion
Suggests consolidation deficit

temporally graded retrograde amnesia
Memory consolidation takes time
This is because the neural pathways of newer memories are not as strong as older ones that have been strengthened by years of retrieval and CONSOLIDATION

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8
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Events (declarative/explicit)

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9
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Facts (declarative/explicit)

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10
Q

Procedural Memory

A

Skills (non-declarative/implicit)

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11
Q

Medial Temporal Lobe

A

Monkeys!!!

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12
Q

Hebbian Learning

A

“When an Axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased”

  • found in hippocampus
  • the cellular basis of learning involves strengthening of a synapse that is repeatedly active when the post synaptic neuron fires
  • repeated activation causes A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, to increase
  • synapses that are active at the same time that the post synaptic neuron fires are strengthened over time
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13
Q

Mechanisms of LTM

A

Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Hippocampus
NMDA/ AMPA receptors

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14
Q

LTP

A

long-term potentiation

(LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activation

long-term increase in excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency stimulation to that input

  1. Repeatedly stimulate a single pathway in hippocampus slices.
  2. Afterwards, new stimulation caused greater excitatory post-synaptic potential
  3. This is long-lasting…And Hebb was right!
  4. It works because of NMDA receptors!
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15
Q

Hippocampus

A

Hebbian learning/LTP occurs here

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16
Q

Iconic v. Echoic Memory

A

Unlike visual memory, in which our eyes can scan the stimuli over and over, the auditory stimuli cannot be scanned over and over.

Overall, echoic memories are stored for slightly longer period

While seeing something or touching something is a repeatable and reoccuring event (speaking in terms of short intervals), hearing is a single occuring event. It was probably an evolutionary benefit to keep and process the auditory input better.

last longer than iconic memory because what you have in the basilar membrane vibrating in your cochlea. As a result, it continues to have some kind of sensation and causes action potentials

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17
Q

Types of Memory

A

Sensory Memory (mil-sec)
Short-Term/W Memory (sec-min)
Long-Term Memory (days-yrs)

Types of Long-Term Memory
Declarative (explicit m)
Non-declarative (implicit m)

Declarative (explicit)
Semantic (facts)
Episodic (events)

Non-Declarative (implicit)
Procedural (motor skills, ex: riding bike)
Perceptual
Classical Conditioning
Nonassociative Learning (habituation sensitization

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18
Q

Perceptual Memory

A

Perceptual memory, that is the ability to interpret
incoming stimuli by recognizing individuals, by
categorizing them, and by noting relationships
between such individuals and categories, is ubiquitous
among animal species, as is the learning of these
facilities

Animals of all sorts can identify food sources, potential
mates, potential predators, etc. Pigeons have been taught to

categorize using such concepts as tree, fish, and human,
some well outside of their evolutionary background
(Herrnstein 1984). Honey bees have been taught to identify
human letters independently of size, color, position or font

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19
Q

Findings of Brenda Miller

A

IQ better than pre-op (112)

Fewer seizures

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20
Q

Memory System

A

See paper

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21
Q

Amnesia Timeline

A

See paper

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22
Q

H.M. Memory Timeline

A

See paper

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23
Q

H.M Types of Memory Deficits

A

DECLARATIVE: lost and impaired
EPISODIC: complete loss (couldn’t remember new people/events)
SEMANTIC: impaired, but some left in tact (rock’n’roll)
NONDECLARATIVE: spared
WORKING: intact
- normal digit span (could count, remember #s, but constant rehersal needed otherwise forgotten upon interruption)
PROCEDURAL MEMORY: intact
- mirror tracing, pursuit rotor tracing, Implicitly familiar w testing equipment, ant amnesiacs can still learn piano pieces
- HM could do priming conceptual task (fish card fill-in)
- Tower of Hanoi (improved, procedural learning, does not remember doing so though)

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24
Q

Temporally Graded Retrograde Amnesia

A

Memory consolidation takes time!

Occurs because the neural pathways of newer memories are not as strong as older ones that have been strengthened by years of retrieval and CONSOLIDATION

hippocampal memory trace
but cortical reinstatement

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25
Memory in the Brain
Hippocampal activation greater during successful remembering (compared to unsuccessful attempts to remember) Cortical activity patterns are reinstated in appropriate parts of cortex
26
Bliss & Lomo
stimulate CA3 --> output measured in CA1 1. Repeatedly stimulate a single pathway in hippocampus slices. 2. Afterwards, new stimulation caused greater excitatory post-synaptic potential 3. This is long-lasting...And Hebb was right! 4. It works because of NMDA receptors!
27
NMDA's role
- LTP is dependent on NMDA receptors - Mg=agonist that has block on NMDA receptor - Opens upon high-frequency stimulation , allowing Ca to flow in; activation of NMDA receptors triggers LTP
28
Agonist/Antagonist
agonist: molecule that occupies receptor and activates antagonist: molecule that occupies receptor and blocks - Mg, AP5
29
NMDA and AMPA
- Both glutamate receptors - Binding by glutamate should open channel, but not when Mg in place - Receptor opens upon high-fq stimulation (Mg block removed, allowing Ca to flow in) - Ca influx generates series of intracellular chemical cascades - when these cascades reach the post-synaptic terminal, this activity results in LTP
30
Morris Water Maze
goal: assess importance of NMDA receptor in learning circular opaque pool water-averse rat platform hidden NMDA antagonist: AP5 -- administered to select rats control + AP5 rats--> thrown in water to learn platform location when platform taken away... CONTROL: biased to platform quadrant AP5 rats: random swimming --> NMDA RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST BLOCKS SPATIAL LTM ------------------------- administer AP5 after learning..no effect AP5 critical during learning, not important for RETRIEVAL; once a memory has been formed/LTP has occured, NMDA receptor no longer needed
31
AP5
NMDA antagonist blocks LTP by binding to NMDA receptor but DOES NOT interfere with regulatory synaptic transmission NMDA RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST BLOCKS SPATIAL LTM
32
Complementary Learning Systems Model
Mclelland & O'Reilly ``` LTP consists of two forms of memory: specific episodes (episodic) generalized patterns (semantic) ``` Pattern separation (formation of distinct episodic memories) is FUNDAMENTALLY INCOMPATIBLE with pattern completion (abstraction of specific episodes to inform general principles) Rapid retention of arbitrary associations /= cannot be supported by the same system that encodes for generalized principles (a necessarily slow process) ----> SUGGESTS THAT... The hippocampus rapidly learns episodic memory... the way a mem is reinstated [IN FULL DETAIL] [IN GENERAL PRINCIPLE] determines whether it will be transferred to the cortex as an episodic or semantic memory
33
Pattern Completion v. Pattern Separation
Pattern Separation: Formation of distinct episodic memories; Rapid retention of arbitrary associations Pattern Completion: The abstraction across specific episodes to distill and/ or update general principles; Slow process of abstracting generalized principles
34
Systems Model, evidence for...
1. Hippocampal activation greater during successful remembering (compared to unsuccessful attempts to remember) 2. Cortical activity patterns are reinstated in appropriate parts of cortex
35
Components of Systems Model
1. Encoding: hippocampal activity should be greater during successful encoding compared to unsuccessful encoding 2. Retrieval: hippocampal ‘memory’ should be reactivated during successful remembering 3. Retrieval: cortical activity is reinstated in appropriate regions of cortex (depending on what you can recall.)
36
Systems Model: Hypothesis 1
Encoding: hippocampal activity should be greater during successful encoding compared to unsuccessful encoding
37
Systems Model: Hypothesis 2
Hippocampal Retrieval: hippocampal ‘memory’ should be reactivated during successful remembering
38
Systems Model: Hypothesis 3
Coritcal Retrieval: cortical activity is reinstated in appropriate regions of cortex (depending on what you can recall.)
39
Consolidation
stabilization of a memory trace after its initial acquisition process in which hippocampus-dependent memories become independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years
40
Pattern Completion
Partial input serves as memory cue, reinstating hippocampal network pattern of activity, this is known as pattern completion.
41
Systems Model Process
1. Experience leads to a cascade of brain activity (visual, spatial, auditory, etc.). 2. This distributed, parallel processing of brain activity is inputting into the hippocampus. 3. The hippocampus turns this input into its own pattern of activity, generating a network ensemble. 4. The more strongly this network becomes interconnected, the more likely you are to remember that experience (dependent on LTP and replay during sleep and rest). (Retrieval) 5. Partial input serves as memory cue, reinstating hippocampal network pattern of activity, this is known as pattern completion. 6. If hippocampal ensemble does pattern complete, this leads to cortical reinstatement. Cortical reinstatement/reactivation is what gives rise to conscious experience of remembering. 1. Hippocampal Activity --> 2. Hippocampal Reinstatement --> 3. Cortical Reinstatement
42
Subsequent Memory Paradigm
Assessing whether hippocampal activity during encoding be predict subsequent memory measures: imaging data, recall ability 1. Look at list of words, record BOLD responses. 2. Memory test (equal # of new, old words). Words with greater brain activity should be remembered better. Imaging data should correlate with % correct words. Significantly greater activity for words remembered than forgotten.
43
Indexing item and source memory | subsequent memory task
(1) Imagine a scene (2) read word backwards Testing for: Object and Context Perirhinal Cortex activity: greater activation for remembered objects Hippocampus: greater activation when both remembered SUGGESTS THAT... Hippocampus is important for encoding patterns/associations
44
Simpsons Experiment
Neuron reactivated right before recall Same neurons during experience are again activated during retrieval reinstatement within the same neuron; N 46 in hippocampus
45
Memory Retrieval
Auditory pairing, visual pairing Cat-meow, Cat-pic Auditory reinstatement even without auditory stimulus SELECTIVE REINSTATEMENT CONTENT-DEPENDENT Cortical activity is reinstated in appropriate regions of cortex (depending on what you can recall)
46
Memory Reactivation
paired associates scene, face, object computational classifier: train pattern classifier to predict visual category from brain activity no pic, just looking at cue (Oprah pic) FLAG --> I remember scene, face, or object
47
Sleep and Rest
The more strongly this network becomes interconnected, the more likely you are to remember that experience (dependent on LTP and replay during sleep and rest).
48
Tambini & Davachi (2013) study
Memory consolidation is thought to depend on the reactivation of patterns of brain activity that characterize recent experience patterns of hippocampal connectivity that characterize an encoding experience persist into immediate rest periods. Furthermore, this persistence is related to memory for the preceding representations, suggesting that postencoding measures of persistent activity patterns may contribute to memory consolidation ------- what does hippocampus activity look like is evidence that pattern of activity persists into replays during rest; patterns of hippocampal activity most similar during immediate rest period experience-dependent changes in brain function
49
Cued Memory Activation
Information acquired during waking can be reactivated during sleep, promoting memory stabilization. performance was more accurate for the cued compared to the uncued sequence
50
Place Cell
A place cell is a type of pyramidal neuron within the hippocampus that becomes active when an animal enters a particular place
51
Fragments Task
Warrington & Weiskrantz performance on two memory tests administered 10 minutes after the presentation of 16 words. Amnesic patients performed as well as control subjects on what the authors termed a “cued recall” task, in which the first three letters of a studied word (so-called “word stems”) were presented and the subject was “required to identify the stimulus word” The patients were markedly impaired, however, on a test of Yes/ No recognition. amnesia was better characterized by “altered control of information in storage” (p. 419), rather than a consolidation block. That is, they argued that new information “gets in there” but that the amnesic syndrome makes it more difficult to access this information.
52
Priming
Facilitative changes in the ability to identify, generate, or process an item due to a specific encounter with the item priming may reveal the workings of implicit memory
53
Repetition Suppression
A reduction of neural response that is often observed when stimuli are presented more than once, compared to novel stimulus repetition priming --> repetition suppression
54
Repetition Priming
facilitative processing | rt speed up
55
Visual Word-Form Priming
same font-different font no change in priming RT in MS suggesting that MS brain lacks perceptual sensitivity visual cortex damage ; R __ R (visual-specificity hem) R hemisphere processing is more visual-spatial L hemisphere processing is more perceptual verbal Priming dependent on font in R hemisphere Same font better recall -- different forms of priming perceptual and conceptual priming
56
Valence vs Arousal
Avoidance (negative) vs Approach (positive)
57
Universal Emotions, 6 emotions
``` (Ekman) happiness fear anger disgust sadness surprise ```
58
Dimensions of Emotion
Valence Avoidance (negative) vs Approach (positive) guilt . want Arousal intensity
59
Measures of emotions
Direct self-report manipulation expresssion facial expression Indirect Galvanic skin response - GSR or SCR Emotional stroop task Pupil dilation
60
Schachter experiment
attribution of emotion Emotion = arousal + attribution interpretation/attribution to stimulus emotion = construction when an emotion is felt, a physiological arousal occurs and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal --------- Injected with epineprine or placebo participants who had no explanation of why their body felt as it did, were more susceptible to the confederate.
61
Dutton & Aron shaky bridge experiment
misattribution of emotion natural setting that would induce physiological arousal because they had transferred (misattributed) their arousal from fear or anxiety on the suspension bridge to higher levels of sexual feeling towards the female experimenter
62
Facial Feedback Theory
facial movement can influence emotional experience ex: an individual who is forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event more of an enjoyable experience Stunted feedback: Botox vs Restylane Botox: kills nerve - and feedback Restylane: just a filler - leaves feedback intact) Botox injected participants report less emotion in response to pleasant and unpleasant films after procedure
63
Orbitofrontal cortex
behavioral deficit | explicit knowledge of appropriate behavior is intact
64
Phineas Gage
emotional, frequent outbursts of anger, rage, couldn’t inhibit inappropriate behavior 1843‘Gage was no longer Gage’ damage to orbitofrontal cortex knowing v. doing
65
Utilization behavior
utilization behavior: use a stimulus in sight even when inappropriate automatic reaction to stimuli syringe - diabetic contextually inappropriate behavior ask v. knowing
66
Emotional Detachment
Pts can describe their actions but show EMOTIONAL DETACHMENT from consequences OVERPRAISING not sensitive to contexual feedback Knowing vs Doing - behavior is off but patients still ‘know’ what is appropriate (e.g. over-praising task and generating nicknames task) watch video and know it's weird
67
Amygdala
Lesioned responses Emotional memory sumbliminal matches
68
Agnes
no outward signs of emotion no facial expression no feelings toward other people felt empty, zombie-like Other patients lose prosody = emotional component of speech damage to OFC
69
Agnes
no outward signs of emotion no facial expression no feelings toward other people felt empty, zombie-like Other patients lose prosody = emotional component of speech damage to OFC
70
SCR: OFC v. Control
SCR: skin conductance response; measures sweat gland activity; indicator of arousal NEUTRAL/FLAT IN OFC PATIENTS
71
Conditioned-fear respose
skin response to emotionally scary stimulus
72
Conditioned Fear Response
(classical conditioning) shock (US) rat shows fear/startle response (UR) pair shock (US)+light (CS), rat learns association, light alone (CS) elicits fear/startle (CR) Amygdala lesions impair fear conditioning in animals and humans
73
Fear memory
physiological response vs. declarative memory - what is going to happen

Cognition and the Brain (6 decks)

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