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Flashcards in Final Deck (86)
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1
Q

Ribosome number for archea and eukaryotes

A

80s

2
Q

Subunits of archea and eukaryotic ribosomes

A

40s and 60s

3
Q

Ribosome number for bacteria

A

70s

4
Q

Subunits for bacteria ribosomes

A

30 and 50s

5
Q

What is the ribosome number based on

A

Sedimentation

6
Q

Shape of DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

Circular

7
Q

What do mitochondria come from

A

Prokaryotes

8
Q

What causes genes to be lost in mitochondria

A

Mitochondria are recycled and their genes spill into the cytoplasm and go into the nucleus

9
Q

Why can mitochondria no longer survive outside the cell

A

Genes lost to nuclear DNA

10
Q

Endosymbiont theory

A

Bacteria (mitochondria) wound up in archea and fed off its nutrients. Energy it produced spilled out into the cell. Both benefitted

11
Q

What was caused by chloroplasts living inside a host for the first time

A

Early algae

12
Q

How do mitochondria lead the way to multicellularity

A

Mitochondria with electron transport introduced into cells that only went through fermentation

13
Q

How do we know fermentation is still in our genes

A

Skeletal muscles still use it

14
Q

How are codons different in mitochondria

A

Different start and stop codons

15
Q

What is the start codon in mitochondria

A

AUU (methaiamine, but encodes ile during elongation)

16
Q

Why do chloroplasts have 2 membranes

A

They lost their cell wall

17
Q

What cells have the most mitochondria/chloroplasts

A

The cells that need the most energy

18
Q

How mant chromosomes do mitochondria have

A

One

19
Q

What happens to mitochondria if the cell doesnt need them anymore

A

They fuse together

20
Q

What does rupture of mitochondria cause

A

Apoptosis

21
Q

Gene gun

A

Delivers DNA molecules into certain organelles through a gold bead that has flanking regions that match up to the part of the cell where you want to insert it

22
Q

How is DNA inserted by a gene gun integrated into the genome

A

Homologous recombination

23
Q

mtDNA mutations

A

Occur slowly over time and are more common in somatic cells

24
Q

How is maternal inheritence tracked

A

Mitochondria

25
Q

How is paternal lineage tracked

A

Y chromosome (can only be tracked in males)

26
Q

Where is mitochondria found in a sperm

A

Neck

27
Q

Why are the mitochondria stacked in the sperm

A

To fit a lot of them to power the flagellum

28
Q

Why don’t the paternal mitochondria get transferred to the offspring

A

Only the head of the sperm enters the egg

29
Q

What causes white and green leaves on a plant

A

Abnormal chloroplasts

30
Q

Heteroplasmic

A

2 types of mitochondria. Some mutant and some normal

31
Q

Homoplasmic

A

One type of mitochondria

32
Q

What does a pedigree look like with mitochondrial diseases

A

All females offspring of females will have the disease

33
Q

Oxidative phosphorelation

A

Production of ATP and free radicals (accelerates mutation rates over time)

34
Q

How can a mother with mitochondrial disease have a child without it

A

Can’t without genetic engineering. Put mothers nucleus from cell with diseased mitochondria into a cell without diseased mitochondria

35
Q

What types of cells do cancers originate in

A

Somatic cells

36
Q

Characteristics of cancer cells

A
  • Telomerase allows them to live indefinitely
  • Cancer cells clear checkpoints
  • Genes that induce apaoptosis must be damages
  • Loses contact
37
Q

How is cancer inherited

A

If you are heterozygous for gene that controls cell cycle and the other normal one becomes mutated

38
Q

Why is oxygen not required for cancer cell growth

A

They only undergo fermentation

39
Q

How does cancer spread

A

Cancer cells produce substances to cause blood vessels to enter tumor

40
Q

Why is cancer generally a disease of old age

A

Mutations accumulate

41
Q

Signals that signal cells to divide

A
  • Extracellular
  • Cell bound signals
  • Autocrine
42
Q

Extracellular signals

A

Hormones (cell receptors get turned on even when the hormone isnt there to proliferate)

43
Q

Cell bound signals

A

Comes from cell to cell attachment

44
Q

Autocrine signals

A

Cells can self stimulate until it contacts other cells

45
Q

CDK

A

Cyclin dependent kinase

-Adds phosphates to other proteins needed for cell cycle. Activated by cyclin

46
Q

What happens when cyclin is always at the CDK

A

CDK is always active. Cells keep growing

47
Q

Genetic predisposition to cancer

A

Heterozygous. Only need one gene to mutate rather then 2

48
Q

What is the first step in cancer development

A

Errors in repair mechanisms

49
Q

Signaling

A

Growth factors
Receptors
Signal transducers
Transcription factors

50
Q

Growth factors

A

Hormones (bind to cell and stimulate it to grow)

51
Q

Receptors

A

Recieve signals

52
Q

Signal tranducers

A

Single signal activates many pathways

53
Q

Transcription factors

A

Activate expression of genes needed for cell division (or preventing cell division)

54
Q

Type of transcription factor

A

Kinases

55
Q

What do checkpoints prevent

A

Point mutations
Translocation
Gene amplification

56
Q

Oncogenes

A

Promote cancer when mutated

- “gain of function”

57
Q

Tumor suppressors

A

Slow down the cell cycle

-“loss of function”

58
Q

Types of oncogenes

A

Ras and Her2

59
Q

How does radiation not affect the normal cells it passes through

A

Low doses are shot from all different angles and meet in the middle

60
Q

Population genetics

A

Distribution of alleles

61
Q

How many alleles in a population

A

Double the amount of people (ex: 20 people, 40 alleles)

62
Q

Hardy weinberg formula

A

P^2+2pq+Q^2=1

63
Q

What does p stand for

A

Frequency of A

64
Q

What does q stand for

A

Frequency of a

65
Q

What does the hardy weinburg formula state

A

Allele frequencies should eventually reach equilibrium

66
Q

Fixation

A

When one allele is removed from a population

67
Q

What populations is genetic drift more common in

A

Small populations

68
Q

If there are 10 people in a population, when will most alleles be lost by

A

Within 20 generations

69
Q

Bottleneck

A

Allele frequency shifts due to a large portion of the population dying off and having to repopulate

70
Q

Founder effect

A

People mate with only other people in their area (allele loss)

71
Q

Mitochondrial genome

A
  • Genes encode tRNA, rRNA, proteins for oxidative phosphorelation
  • No introns
72
Q

Function of chloroplasts

A

Captures solar energy and stores it in chemical bonds

73
Q

Chloroplast genome

A
  • Has introns
  • Have more genes than mitochondria
  • Can be branched, circular or linear
74
Q

Transplasmatonic plant

A

Cells with gene inserted by gene gun cultured into a plant

75
Q

Cytochrome oxidase c

A

Functions in mitochondrial electron transport

- 7 subunits. 3 encoded by mitochondrial genome. 4 by nuclear genes

76
Q

What do mtDNA mutations cause

A

Slow cell growth (small cell colonies and weak tissues)

77
Q

What do cpDNA mutations cause

A

Changes in leaf color

78
Q

What is a plant called with cpDNA mutations

A

Variegated

79
Q

How are mitochondrial diseases passed

A

From mother to children

80
Q

What cells do mutations occur in that cause cancer

A

Somatic

81
Q

3 ways cancer cells evade normal growth

A

Produce cell division signals
Lose contact
Avoid apoptosis

82
Q

How do cancer cells live indefinitely

A

Expression of telomerase (maintains length of chromosome ends)

83
Q

Gene pool

A

Total of all alleles carried in members of a population

84
Q

Assumptions of hardy weinburg

A
  1. Population has infinite number of individuals
  2. Individuals mate at random
  3. No new mutations appear
  4. No migration
  5. Genotypes have no effect on the ability to survive and transmit alleles to the next generation
85
Q

What is hardy weinburg useful for

A

Estimating population changes through a few generations, not long term

86
Q

Monte Carlo simulations

A

Use a computer program to model possible outcomes of randomly chosen matings over a designated number of generations