The set of attributes, abilities, and characteristics that a person uses to describe and define him- or herself.
self-concept
The ability to identify the self, typically measured as mirror recognition.
self-recognition
A classification of the self based on broad ways in which people differ, such as sex, age, and physical characteristics, which children use to guide their behavior.
categorical self
A sense of self that is characterized by traits that one values.
ideal self
Who an individual is, his or her personal characteristics. The match between the real self and aspirational, ideal self influences well-being.
real self
Future-oriented representations of self-concept into the future; who an individual might become, both hoped for and feared, that guides and motivates choices and behaviors.
possible self
The process of telling stories from one’s past, to oneself or others.
reminiscence
The reflection on past experiences and one’s life, permitting greater self-understanding and the assignment of meaning to their lives.
life review
The general emotional evaluation of one’s own worth.
self-esteem
The tendency to compare and judge one’s abilities, achievements, and behaviors in relation to others.
social comparison
An overall evaluation of self-worth.
global self-esteem
The practice of adopting values and practices from two cultures.
biculturalism
The cultural belief that family members should support one another; that the family should take precedence over individuals and the community.
familism
A coherent organized sense of self that includes values, attitudes, and goals to which one is committed.
identity
The identity state in which after undergoing a period of exploration a person commits to self-chosen values and goals.
identity achievement
In Erikson’s theory, a period in which the individual is free to explore identity possibilities before committing to an identity.
psychosocial moratorium
An extended transition to adulthood that takes place from ages 18 to 25, in which a young person is no longer an adolescent yet has not assumed the roles that comprise adulthood.
emerging adulthood
The degree to which individuals have explored possible selves and whether they have committed to specific beliefs and goals, assessed by administering interview and survey measures, and categorized into four identity statuses
identity status
The identity state in which an individual has not undergone exploration nor committed to self-chosen values and goals.
identity diffusion
The identity state in which an individual has not undergone exploration but has committed to values and goals chosen by an authority figure.
identity foreclosure
A sense of membership to an ethnic group and viewing the attitudes and practicesassociated with that group as an enduring part of the self.
ethnic identity
Five clusters of personality traits that reflect an inborn predisposition that is stable throughout life. The five traits are: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Big 5 personality traits
In Levenson’s theory, a person’s overall organization of his or her life, particularly dreams, goals, and relationships with significant others as well as institutions, such as marriage, family, and vocation.
life structure
A period of self-doubt and stress attributed to entering midlife once thought to contribute to a major reorganization of personality in midlife. Now thought to occur in a small minority of adults and to be related to history more than age.
midlife crisis
Piaget’s first stage of morality when children become aware of rules and view them as sacred and unalterable.
heteronomous morality
Piaget’s second stage of morality in which children have a more flexible view of rules, believing that rules are self-chosen rather than simply imposed upon them.
autonomous morality
Kohlberg’s first level of reasoning in which young children’s behavior is governed by punishment and gaining rewards.
preconventional reasoning
The second level of Kohlberg’s theory in which moral decisions are based on conforming to social rules.
conventional moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s third level of moral reasoning emphasizing autonomous decision-making based on principles such as valuing human dignity.
post-conventional moral reasoning
Gilligan’s feminine mode of moral reasoning, characterized by a desire to maintain relationships and a responsibility to avoid hurting others.
care orientation
A male mode of moral reasoning proposed by Gilligan that emphasizes the abstract principles of fairness and individualism.
justice orientation
Actions that are oriented toward others for the pure sake of helping, without a reward.
prosocial behavior
The capacity to understand another person’s emotions and concerns.
empathy
A measure of self-control in which researchers administer tasks in which children have to wait a period of time to achieve a reward.
delay of gratification
The methods a parent uses to teach and socialize children.
discipline
A discipline technique in which a child is removed from a situation for a period of time.
time out
Strategy to control children’s behavior that relies on reasoning and discussion.
inductive discipline
Behavior that harms others, is disruptive or hostile, or that transgresses social norms.
antisocial behavior
Behavior that harms or violates the rights of others, whether overtly or covertly.
aggression
Behavior that hurts someone else in order to achieve a goal such as gaining a possession.
instrumental aggression
Harming someone through nonphysical acts aimed at harming a person’s connections with others, such as by exclusion and rumor spreading.
relational aggression
Also known as bullying; an ongoing interaction in which a child becomes a frequent target of physical, verbal, or social harm by another child or children.
peer victimization
An impulsive, hostile response to provocation or a blocked goal.
reactive aggression
A child who attacks or inflicts harm on others and who is also attacked or harmed by others; the child is both bully and victim.
bully/victim
A psychiatric diagnosis that refers to a severe form of antisocial behavior, characterized by aggressive behaviors that involve the destruction of property, stealing, or robbing others, or causing pain to others.
conduct disorder
Refers to religious involvement, sharing the attitudes and beliefs of a religion, and participating in its practices.
religiosity
A more general term than religiosity and denotes a search for meaning beyond the self.
spirituality
Is biological and determined by genetics.
sex
Is determined by socialization and the roles that the individual adopts.
gender
Refer to broad generalized judgments of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for males or females in a given culture.
gender stereotypes
The process in which young children acquire the characteristics and attitudes that are considered appropriate for males or females.
gender typing
One’s image of oneself as masculine or feminine, embodying the roles and behaviors that society associates with males and females.
gender identity
The gender identity of those who score high on both masculine and feminine characteristics.
androgyny
Refers to those who do not identify with their biological sex but instead adopt an opposite-sex identity.
transgender
In Kohlberg’s view, young children’s recognition that gender does not change over time, though it is not yet understood as a biological construct but rather based on external traits and behaviors.
gender stability
A child’s understanding of the biological permanence of gender and that it does not change regardless of appearance, activities, or attitudes.
gender constancy
A concept or a mental structure that organizes gender-related information and embodies their understanding of what it means to be a male or female.
gender schema
An approach to gender typing that emphasizes information processing and environmental influences that influence the development of gender-related beliefs, which then guide children’s behaviors and attitudes.
gender schema theory
Refers to the maturation of adrenal glands.
adrenarche
An individual’s sense of self regarding sexuality, including the awareness and comfort regarding personal sexual attitudes, interests, and behaviors, which develops through a period of exploration and commitment.
sexual identity
A term that refers to whether someone is sexually attracted to others of the same sex, opposite sex, or both.
sexual orientation
The exchange of explicit sexual messages or images via mobile phone.
sexting
Infections passed from one individual to another through sexual contact.
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
The most serious sexually transmitted infection, which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
A condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the most serious sexually transmitted illness.
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Sexual activity outside of romantic relationships.
casual sex
Refers to nonconsensual sexual penetration of the body by the body part of another person or object.
rape
A broader term than rape, refers to a wide variety of nonconsensual sexual contact or behavior.
sexual assault
Refers to not living with a romantic partner.
singlehood
An arrangement in which a committed, unmarried, couple lives together in the same home.
cohabitation
A family composed of a biological parent and a non-related adult, most commonly a mother and stepfather.
blended family
Enduring sets of child-rearing behaviors a parent uses across situations to form a child-rearing climate.
parenting style
An approach to child-rearing that emphasizes high behavioral control and low levels of warmth and autonomy granting.
authoritarian parenting style
A child-rearing approach characterized by high levels of warmth and low levels of control or discipline.
permissive parenting style
A child-rearing style characterized by low levels of warmth and acceptance coupled with little control or discipline.
uninvolved parenting style
An approach to child-rearing in which parents are warm and sensitive to children’s needs, grant appropriate autonomy, and exert firm control.
authoritative parenting style
Parents’ awareness of their children’s activities, whereabouts, and companions.
parental monitoring
A popular image of midlife adults in which they scramble to meet the needs of both dependent children and frail elderly parents and thus sandwiched between the two.
sandwich generation
Social interaction involving chasing and play fighting with no intent to harm.
rough-and-tumble play
Make-believe play in which children act out roles and themes.
sociodramatic play
A child who receives many positive ratings from peers indicating that he or she is accepted and valued by peers.
popular child
An ongoing interaction in which a child is deliberately excluded by peers.
peer rejection
A tightly knit peer group of about three to eight close friends who share similarities such as demographics and attitudes.
clique
A large, loose group of individuals based on perceived characteristics, interests, stereotypes, and reputation.
crowd
Establishing romantic relationships, a type of romantic courtship.
dating
A perspective that declines in social interaction in older age are due to mutual withdrawal between older adults and society as they anticipate death.
disengagement theory
The view that older adults want to remain active and that declines in social interaction are not a result of elders’ desires but are a function of social barriers to engagement.
activity theory
The perspective that older adults strive to maintain continuity and consistency in self across the past and into the future; successful elders retain a sense that they are the same person they have always been despite physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes.
continuity theory
The perspective that as the emotional regulation function of social interaction becomes increasingly important to older adults, they prefer to interact with familiar social partners, accounting for the narrowing of the social network with age.
socioemotional selectivity theory
An approach to early childhood education that emphasizes providing children with structured learning environments in which teachers deliver direct instruction on letters, numbers, shapes, and academic skills.
academically centered programs
A constructivist approach to early childhood education that encourages children to actively build their own understanding of the world through observing, interacting with objects and people, and engaging in a variety of activities that allow them to manipulate materials and interact with teachers and peers.
child-centered programs
The practice of promoting children to the next grade even though they did not meet academic standards out of the belief that it will foster self-esteem.
social promotion
An approach to reading instruction that emphasizes teaching children to sound out words and connect sounds to written symbols.
phonics
An approach to reading instruction that emphasizes meaning, not phonics. Children are exposed to reading materials without instruction and emphasis is on meaning-making.
whole-language approach
Refers to the match between the characteristics and supports of the school environment and the developing person’s needs and capacities. Influences well-being.
stage-environment fit
A high school equivalency test that young people who drop out have the option of taking.
General Educational Development exam (GED)
Students who are the first in their families to attend college.
first-generation college students
Refers to college students who are older than the typical-age student.
nontraditional college student
The willingness to persist at challenging tasks and meet high standards of accomplishment.
achievement motivation
The drive to explore, understand, and master one’s environment.
mastery motivation
A belief that success stems from trying hard and that failures are influenced by factors that can be controlled, like effort.
mastery orientation
An orientation characterized by a fixed mindset and the attribution of poor performance to internal factors.
learned helplessness orientation
A sense of mental exhaustion that accompanies long-term job stress, excessive workloads, and reduced feelings of control.
job burnout
An invisible barrier that prevents women and ethnic minorities from advancing to the highest levels of the career ladder.
glass ceiling
The challenge of finding time and energy for both a career and and personal pursuits, such as family.
work–life balance
Defines death as the moment the heart stops beating; blood, and thereby oxygen, no longer circulate throughout the body.
clinical death
Refers to the irreversible loss of functioning in the entire brain that may occur prior to clinical death.
whole brain death
Cortical death when the person appears awake but is not aware, due to permanent loss of all activity in the cortex.
persistent vegetative state (PVS)
Ending one’s life in a way that is true to one’s preferences and controlling end-of-life care.
dying with dignity
A legal document that permits a person to make his or her wishes known regarding medical care in the event that the person is incapacitated by an illness or accident and is unable to speak for him- or herself.
living will
Refers to the practice of assisting terminally ill people in dying more quickly.
euthanasia
Occurs when life-sustaining treatment, such as a ventilator, is withheld or withdrawn, allowing a person to die naturally.
passive euthanasia
Occurs when death is deliberately induced, such as by administering a fatal dose of pain medication.
active euthanasia
A type of voluntary active euthanasia in which terminally ill patients make the conscious decision that they want their life to end before dying becomes a protracted process.
physician assisted suicide
An approach to end-of-life care that emphasizes a dying patient’s need for pain management, psychological, spiritual, and social support as well as death with dignity.
hospice
An alternative to medical treatment in which dying patients receive medications to control pain and related symptoms.
palliative care
Refers to the variability in the rate of decline that people show prior to death.
dying trajectory
The process of coping with the sense of loss that follows death.
bereavement
The affective response to bereavement that includes distress and an intense array of emotions such as hurt, anger, and guilt.
grief
The ceremonies and rituals a culture prescribes for expressing bereavement.
mourning
A model of the brain consisting of two systems, one emotional and the other rational, that develop on different timeframes, accounting for typical adolescent behavior.
dual-process model
Refers to the status of a person who has lost a spouse through death and has not remarried.
widowhood
Refers to the increased likelihood for a windowed person to die, illustrating the relationship between social relations and health.
widowhood effect