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1
Q

Introduction to The Muscular System

A

Skeletal muscles: movement in environment•Smooth muscles: intestines, ureters, veins and arteries•Cardiac muscle: pumps blood through heart and blood vessels•40–50% of body weight

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2
Q

The Types of Muscle

A
  1. Skeletal
  2. Smooth
  3. Cardiac
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3
Q

Skeletal

A

Skeletal: voluntary, striated, and multinucleated

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4
Q

Smooth

A

Smooth: involuntary, nonstriated, and uninucleated

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5
Q

Cardiac

A

Cardiac: involuntary, striated, and uninucleated

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6
Q

The Anatomy of Skeletal or Striated Muscle

A
  • Skeletal muscle cell surrounded by sarcolemma
  • Fasciculi: bundles of fascicles
  • Fascicles: individual bundles of muscle fibers
  • Perimysium: surrounds each fascicle
  • Epimysium: covers the perimysium
  • Fascia: covers the epimysium•Myosin: A bands
  • Actin: I bands
  • Z lines
  • H zone
  • Sarcomere: between two adjacent Z lines–Actual contraction process occurs here
  • Sarcotubular system–T system and sarcoplasmic reticulum
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7
Q

Introduction to The Physiology of Muscle Contraction

A
  • Motor unit: all muscle cells innervated by one motor neuron
  • Muscle cell properties–Excitability–Conductivity–Contractility–Elasticity
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8
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Neuroelectrical Factors

A

•Na+ higher concentration outside muscle cell
•K+ higher concentration inside muscle cell
•Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative
•Electrical potential: rush of Na+ inside cell
•K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance
•Action potential
–Calcium released
–Troponin and tropomyosin action inhibited
–Activated myosin links to actin filaments

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9
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Chemical Interactions

A
  • Myosin heads contain ATP
  • ATP releases energy upon myosin/action link
  • Energy released used to pull action
  • Sodium: potassium pump pumps out sodium
  • Resting potential restored
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10
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Energy Sources

A

•ATP: energy source for muscle contraction
•ATP production
–Glycolysis
–Krebs citric acid cycle
–Electron transport
•Alternate sources: fatty acids and phosphocreatine

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11
Q

The Muscle Twitch

A

•Stimulus > latent period > contraction > relaxation
•Contraction strength depends on
–Strength, speed, and duration of stimulus
–Weight of load
–Temperature
•All-or-none law

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12
Q

Muscle Tone

A

•State of partial contraction throughout whole muscle
•Maintains pressure on abdominal contents
•Helps maintain blood pressure
•Aids digestion
•Types
–Isotonic, isometric

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13
Q

The Anatomy of Smooth Muscle

A 
•Found in hollow structures
•Involuntary, uninucleated, nonstriated
•Arrangement (two layers)
–Longitudinal (outer)
–Circular (inner)
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14
Q

The Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle

A
  • Autonomic nervous system control
  • Involuntary, uninucleated, striated
  • Intercalated disks: coordinate contraction
  • Cardiac muscles: contract, relax, and contract 75 times/minute
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15
Q

The Naming and Actions of Skeletal Muscles

A
  • Action
  • Shape
  • Origin and insertion
  • Location
  • Direction of fibers
  • Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle
  • Insertion: movable attachment of muscle
  • Tendons: attach muscle to bone
  • Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon
  • Flexors: bend limb at a joint
  • Extensor: straighten limb at a joint
  • Abductors: move limb away from midline
  • Adductors: bring limb toward midline
  • Rotators: revolve limb around axis
  • Dorsiflexors: raise the foot
  • Plantar flexors: lower the foot
  • Supinators: turn palm upward
  • Pronators: turn palm downward
  • Levators: raise a part of the body
  • Depressors: lower a part of the body
  • Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action
  • Antagonists: oppose agonists
  • Synergists: assist prime movers
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16
Q

Origin

A

Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle

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17
Q

Insertion

A

Insertion: movable attachment of muscle

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18
Q

Tendons

A

Tendons: attach muscle to bone

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19
Q

Aponeurosis:

A

Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon

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20
Q

Flexors

A

Flexors: bend limb at a joint

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21
Q

Extensor

A

Extensor: straighten limb at a joint

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22
Q

Abductors

A

Abductors: move limb away from midline

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23
Q

Adductors

A

Adductors: bring limb toward midline

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24
Q

Rotators

A

Rotators: revolve limb around axis

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25
Dorsiflexors
Dorsiflexors: raise the foot
26
Plantar flexors:
Plantar flexors: lower the foot
27
Supinators
Supinators: turn palm upward
28
Pronators
Pronators: turn palm downward
29
Levators
•Levators: raise a part of the body
30
Depressors
Depressors: lower a part of the body
31
Prime movers or agonists
Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action
32
Antagonists
Antagonists: oppose agonists
33
Synergists
Synergists: assist prime movers
34
The Function and Location of Selected Skeletal Muscles: Superficial Muscles
Superficial muscles of the body, anterior view | Superficial muscles of the body, posterior view
35
Muscles of Facial Expression
* Occipitalis * Frontalis * Zygomaticus * Levator labii superioris * Orbicularis oris and buccinator
36
Muscles of Mastication
* Masseter * Temporalis * Pterygoid
37
Muscles of the Eye
* Superior rectus•Inferior rectus * Medial rectus•Lateral rectus * Superior and inferior oblique
38
Muscles Moving the Head
Sternocleidomastoid –Contraction of both causes flexion of neck –Contraction of one causes rotation to left or right
39
Muscles Moving the Shoulder Girdle
* Levator scapulae * Rhomboids * Pectoralis minor * Trapezius * Serratus anterior
40
Muscles Moving the Humerus
* Pectoralis major * Latissimus dorsi * Teres minor * Deltoid * Supraspinatus * Infraspinatus
41
Muscles Moving the Elbow
* Brachialis * Biceps brachii * Brachioradialis * Triceps brachii * Anconeus
42
Muscles Moving the Wrist
* Flexor carpi | * Extensor carpi
43
Muscles Moving the Hand
* Supinator * Pronator teres * Pronator quadratus
44
Muscles Moving the Thumb
* Flexor pollicis * Extensor pollicis * Adductor pollicis * Abductor pollicis * Opponens pollicis
45
Muscles Moving the Fingers
* Flexor digitorum * Extensor digitorum * Interossei
46
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
* External oblique * Internal oblique * Transversus abdominis * Rectus abdominis
47
Muscles of Respiration or Breathing
•Diaphragm –Main muscle •External and internal intercostals –Expand the ribs
48
Muscles Moving the Femur
* Psoas * Iliacus * Gluteus maximus * Gluteus medius * Gluteus minimus * Tensor fascia lata
49
Muscles Moving the Knee Joint
* Biceps femoris * Semitendinosus * Semimembranosus * Popliteus * Gracilis * Sartorius * Quadriceps femoris
50
Muscles Moving the Foot
* Gastrocnemius * Tibialis posterior * Soleus * Peroneus longus * Plantaris * Tibialis anterior * Peroneus tertius
51
Muscles Moving the Toes
* Flexor hallucis * Extensor hallucis * Flexor digitorum * Extensor digitorum * Abductor hallucis * Abductor digiti minimi
52
The Nervous SystemIntroduction, Spinal Cord, and Spinal Nerves Introduction
•Control center and communication network –Directs functions of body’s organs and systems –Interprets external environment –Determines reaction to change •Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
53
Homeostasis
Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
54
Organization
•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord •Peripheral nervous system –Afferent peripheral system •Sensory neurons –Efferent peripheral system •Somatic •Autonomic: sympathetic and parasympathetic
55
•Central nervous system
•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
56
•Peripheral nervous system
•Peripheral nervous system | –Afferent peripheral system
57
•Sensory neurons
•Sensory neurons | –Efferent peripheral system
58
Neuroglia Cells
* Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier * Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation * Microglial: phagocytosis * Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain * Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system
59
Astrocytes
•Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier
60
Oligodendroglia
•Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation
61
Microglial
Microglial: phagocytosis
62
Ependymal
•Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain
63
Schwann
Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system
64
The Structure of a Neuron
•Cell body •Dendrites: receptive areas •Axon: extension of cell body –Schwann cells –Nodes of Ranvier •Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body •Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon •Unipolar: one process extending from cell body •Receptors: detect environmental stimuli •Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site •Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing •Motor: reaction to the stimulus
65
•Dendrites
•Dendrites: receptive areas
66
Axon
•Axon: extension of cell body –Schwann cells –Nodes of Ranvier
67
Multipolar
Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body
68
Bipolar
Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
69
Unipolar:
Unipolar: one process extending from cell body
70
Receptors
Receptors: detect environmental stimuli
71
Sensory
Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site
72
Internuncial
•Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing
73
Motor
•Motor: reaction to the stimulus
74
The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse
``` •Nerve cell fiber resting potential –Na+ concentration higher on outside –K+ concentration higher on inside –Negative charge on inside –Positive charge on outside •Depolarization: Na+ rush inside cell •Repolarization: K+ rush out to restore balance •Depolarization: Repolarization moves in one direction •Myelinated vs. unmyelinated •All-or-none law ```
75
The Synaptic Transmission
``` •Synapse: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites •Impulse reaches axon terminals •Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft •Neurotransmitters –Acetylcholine •Most common –Epinephrine –Norepinephrine –Serotonin –Dopamine –Endorphins ```
76
The Reflex Arc
``` •Knee-jerk reflex •Maintain homeostasis –Heartbeat/breathing rates –Digestion –Coughing –Sneezing –Swallowing –Vomiting ```
77
Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` •White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS •Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain ```
78
Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` •White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS •Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain •Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS •Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS •Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS •Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS •Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord ```
79
White matter
•White matter –Groups of myelinated axons –Forms nerve tracts in CNS
80
Gray matter
•Gray matter –Nerve cell bodies and dendrites –Unmyelinated axon bundles –Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
81
Nerve
•Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS
82
Ganglia
•Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS
83
Tract
•Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS
84
Nucleus
•Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS
85
Horns
•Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord
86
The Spinal Cord Introduction
``` •Continuation of medulla oblongata •31 segments each with a pair of spinal nerves •Protected by meninges –Dura mater –Arachnoid –Pia mater ```
87
Functions of the Spinal Cord
``` •Conveys sensory impulses to the brain •Integrates reflexes •Spinal nerves connect at roots –Dorsal root: sensory –Ventral root: motor ```
88
The Spinal Nerves
•All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots •Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers •Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae •Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord –Cervical: 8 pairs –Thoracic: 12 pairs –Lumbar: 5 pairs –Sacral: 5 pairs –Coccygeal: 1 pair
89
The Nervous SystemThe Brain, Cranial Nerves, Autonomic Nervous System, and the Special Senses Introduction
•Brain is divided into four main parts –Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli –Diencephalon: controls homeostasis –Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions –Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance
90
Brainstem
–Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli
91
Diencephalon
–Diencephalon: controls homeostasis
92
Cerebrum
–Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions
93
Cerebellum
–Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance
94
•Brain is divided into four main parts
–Brainstem: –Diencephalon: –Cerebrum: –Cerebellum:
95
The Principal Parts of the Brain
``` •Main parts: brainstem, diencephalon, cerebrum, and cerebellum •Protection –Cranial bones –Meninges –Cerebrospinal fluid •Ventricles –Interventricular foramen ```
96
•Main parts of the brain
•Main parts: 1. brainstem, 2. diencephalon, 3. cerebrum, 4. and cerebellum
97
Protection for the brain
Protection –Cranial bones –Meninges –Cerebrospinal fluid
98
Ventricles of the brain
Interventricular foramen
99
The Anatomy and Functions of the Brainstem
* Medulla oblongata * Pons varolii * Midbrain
100
Medulla oblongata
``` •Medulla oblongata –Ascending and descending tracts –Connect spinal cord with the brain –Some tracts cross over in medulla –Reticular formation: controls consciousness –Reflex centers ```
101
•Pons varolii
•Pons varolii –Connects spinal cord with brain –Connects parts of brain with each other –Helps control breathing
102
•Midbrain
•Midbrain –Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord –Dorsal tectum: reflex center –Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli) –Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)
103
The Anatomy and Functions of the Diencephalon
•Optic tracts •Mamillary bodies: memory and emotional responses •Thalamus –Relay station for sensory impulses –Interpretation center for pain, temperature, and touch •Epithalamus: contains pineal gland •Hypothalamus: homeostasis –Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system –Receives sensory impulses from internal organs –Controls pituitary gland and links endocrine and nervous systems
104
The Cerebrum: Structure and Function
•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface •Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres •Gyri: folds •Sulci: grooves •Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres •Surface of the cortex –Motor areas control muscular movements –Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses –Association areas process emotions and intellect •Cerebral hemispheres –Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation –Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature –Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment –Occipital lobe: vision
105
•Cerebral cortex
•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
106
•Longitudinal fissure
•Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres
107
•Gyri:
•Gyri: folds
108
Sulci:
•Sulci: grooves
109
•Corpus callosum
•Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
110
•Surface of the cortex
•Surface of the cortex –Motor areas control muscular movements –Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses –Association areas process emotions and intellect
111
•Cerebral hemispheres
•Cerebral hemispheres –Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation –Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature –Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment –Occipital lobe: vision
112
The Cerebellum: Structure and Function
``` •Butterfly-shaped •Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis •Functions –Coordinating muscular movements –Maintaining posture –Maintaining balance ```
113
The Autonomic Nervous System
•Subdivision of efferent PNS•Functions without conscious effort •Regulates functions of internal organs •Assists in maintaining homeostasis •Helps deal with emergency situations •Sympathetic –Energy and stressful situations–Increases heartbeat and breathing rates –Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and norepinephrine •Parasympathetic –Restores body to nonstressful state –Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine –Stimulates digestion, urination, and defecation
114
The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
115
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
116
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
* (I) Olfactory: smell * (II) Optic: sight * (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil * (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball * (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth * (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball * (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands * (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing * (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands * (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses * (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement * (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
117
•(I) Olfactory
•(I) Olfactory: smell
118
•(II) Optic:
•(II) Optic: sight
119
•(III) Oculomotor:
•(III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
120
•(IV) Trochlear:
•(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
121
•(V) Trigeminal:
•(V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
122
•(VI) Abducens:
•(VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
123
•(VII) Facial:
•(VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
124
•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear:
•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
125
•(IX) Glossopharyngeal:
•(IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
126
•(X) Vagus:
•(X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
127
•(XI) Accessory:
•(XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
128
•(XII) Hypoglossal:
•(XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
129
The Special Senses
1. The Sense of Smell 2. The Sense of Taste 3. The Sense of Sight 4. The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
130
The Sense of Smell
* Molecules in air dissolve in nasal mucus * Bipolar sensory neurons transfer chemical impulse * Olfactory bulbs receive impulse * Impulse sent to olfactory cortex * Odor variety dependent on brain interpretation
131
The Sense of Taste
* Taste buds on tongue, palate, and pharynx * Taste bud cell types–Exterior capsule: epithelial cells–Interior: taste cells * Taste depends on chemicals dissolved in saliva * Taste influenced by olfactory sensations
132
The Sense of Sight
``` •Eyes protected by eyelids and eyelashes •Tears –Lubricate the eyes –Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme –Contain salt and gamma globulin ```
133
The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
•Outer ear –Auricle: external, visible, flexible part –External auditory meatus •Lined with hair and ceruminous glands –Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound •Middle ear –Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes –Openings: oval and round windows –Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure •Inner ear –Cochlea: hearing –Equilibrium•Static: vestibule •Kinetic: semicircular canals
134
•Outer ear
•Outer ear –Auricle: external, visible, flexible part –External auditory meatus •Lined with hair and ceruminous glands –Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound
135
•Middle ear
•Middle ear –Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes –Openings: oval and round windows –Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure
136
•Inner ear
•Inner ear –Cochlea: hearing –Equilibrium•Static: vestibule •Kinetic: semicircular canals
137
•Molecules in air dissolve where?
in nasal mucus
138
•Bipolar sensory neurons transfer what?
chemical impulse
139
•Olfactory bulbs receive what?
impulse
140
•Impulse sent where?
to olfactory cortex
141
•Odor variety dependent on what?
brain interpretation
142
•Taste buds reside on?
on tongue, palate, and pharynx
143
•Taste bud cell types
Exterior capsule: epithelial cells | –Interior: taste cells
144
•Taste depends on what?
chemicals dissolved in saliva
145
•Taste influenced by what?
by olfactory sensations
146
•Eyes protected by what?
eyelids and eyelashes
147
•Tears
–Lubricate the eyes –Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme –Contain salt and gamma globulin
148
The Endocrine System Introduction
•Maintains internal environment (homeostasis) •Hypothalamus: sends chemical signals to pituitary •Endocrine glands –Ductless –Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream
149
The Functions of Hormones
•Control cellular respiration, growth, and reproduction •Control body fluids and electrolyte balance •Control secretion of other hormones •Control behavior patterns •Regulate reproductive cycles, growth, and development •Chemical control functions as negative feedback loop –Thermostat turns furnace on when temperature falls below set point •Hormones function similarly
150
The Classification of Hormones
``` •Modified amino acids –Epinephrine, oxytocin•Proteins –Insulin, growth hormones •Steroid –Cortisol, estrogen ```
151
The Hypothalamus of the Brain
•Controls secretions of the pituitary gland •Nerve cells produce chemical signals –Releasing hormones –Releasing inhibitory hormones –Controlled by negative feedback from endocrine system
152
The Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
153
The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Growth hormone (GH): cell metabolism and growth –Decreased production •Dwarfism: childhood –Increased production •Gigantism: childhood •Acromegaly: post puberty –Controlled by two releasing hormones from hypothalamus •Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates thyroid •Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex •Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates melanocytes •Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) –Females •Stimulates ovarian follicle development –Males •Stimulates sperm cell production •Luteinizing hormone (LH) –Females•Stimulates ovulation and progesterone production –Males •Testosterone production •Lactogenic hormone (prolactin): stimulates milk production in females –May cause decrease in male sex hormones
154
The Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Hormones
•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) –Increased water reabsorption in kidney tubules –Deficiency results in diabetes insipidus –Regulated through osmoreceptors •Dehydration causes water conservation •Oxytocin –Contraction of uterine smooth muscles –Constriction of mammary gland cells (lactation) –Given after childbirth to constrict blood vessels to minimize risk of hemorrhage
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The Thyroid Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
``` •Located below larynx on either side of trachea •Requires iodine •Hormones –Thyroxine (T4): metabolism –Triiodothyronine (T3): metabolism –Calcitonin: regulation of calcium and phosphate concentration •Hypothyroidism –Cretinism –Lowered metabolic rate –Myxedema •Hyperthyroidism –Elevated metabolism –Graves’ disease •Exophthalmia ```
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The Parathyroid Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Located within the posterior thyroid gland•Chief cells secrete parathormone (PTH) •PTH stimulates bone cell release of calcium and phosphate •Hyperparathyroidism –Breakdown of bone matrix •Hypoparathyroidism –Low calcium level in blood
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The Adrenal Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Located on top of each kidney •Adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine •Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, androgens •Disorders –Addison’s disease: lack of adrenal cortex hormones –Cushing’s syndrome: too much adrenal cortex hormones
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The Pancreas, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders
•Islets of Langerhans•Beta cells: insulin production •Alpha cells: glucagon production •Blood glucose levels regulated by negative feedback •Disorders –Low blood glucose: acidosis –High blood glucose: excess kidney production, dehydration –Diabetes mellitus: insufficient insulin production
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The Testes and the Ovaries
* Testes: testosterone–Development of male reproduction structures–Development of male sex characteristics * Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone–Development of female reproductive organs–Development of female sex characteristics–Control menstrual cycle
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The Thymus Gland and Its Hormone
* Located behind the sternum * Secretes thymosin * Important for T cell production * Thymus shrinks as we age
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The Pineal Gland and Its Hormone
``` •Located in the brain near the thalamus •Melatonin –Inhibits reproductive functions –Regulates body rhythms •Serotonin: neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor –Stimulates smooth muscle contractions ```
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the semitendinosus has
a really long tendon
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rectus means
straight up and down
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gracilis is
the most medial muscle
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the tibia is on the
big toe side
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the fibula is on the
little toe side
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the fibula is also known as
peroneus longus
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anterior leg muscle=
extends foot/toes
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posterior leg muscles=
flexes foot/toes
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hallucis=
big toe
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the big toe is medial or lateral
medial
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little toe os medial or lateral
lateral
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ab - ductor
away from midline
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ad- ductor
towards the midline
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interossei
in between bones
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flaccid
limp
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trophic
growth
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hyper
alot
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atrophy
no growth
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myo =
muscle
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myalgia ==
pain
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my =
muscle
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The Nervous System | Introduction, Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Control center and communication network Directs functions of body’s organs and systems Interprets external environment Determines reaction to change Homeostasis: balanced internal environment Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Organization of nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)- BRAIN and SPINAL CORD Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- NERVES AFFERENT peripheral system (Sensory neurons) EFFERENT peripheral system (motor neurons) Somatic- conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to skeletal muscle Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue, & the glands Sympathetic (SANS): Stimulates & speeds up metabolic actions ‘Fight or Flight’ Response (i.e. heart rate & sweating) Parasympathetic (PANS): Slows down metabolic actions: Stimulate digestion, urination, and defecation: “Rest & Digestion” Response
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Classification of Nerve Cells
Provide unique functions Sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling, muscle activity, regulating glandular secretions Support, protect, & nourish the neurons Maintains homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes it
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Neuroglia Cells (Support Cells)
**60% of ALL Brain Cells! Astrocytes: support, connection, blood brain barrier Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation in central nervous system (CNS) Schwann: myelin sheath formation in peripheral nervous system (PNS) Microglial: phagocytosis Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain
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The Structure of a Neuron
``` Cell body: Control Center Dendrites: receptive areas Axon: extension of cell body Schwann cells- myelinated portions Nodes of Ranvier- unmyelinated portions Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common! Most MOTOR neurons Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon Most INTERNEURONS neurons Unipolar: one process extending from cell body Most SENSORY neurons ```
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The Structure of a Neuron 3
Receptors: detect environmental stimuli Sensory (afferent) neurons: Receive stimulus impulse from receptor site Carry impulses to the brain Internuncial (Interneurons): transmit impulse for interpretation and processing Carry impulses between neurons Motor (efferent) neurons: React to the stimulus Carry impulses from the brain to “effector” organs
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The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse
``` Concentration of electrolytes: Na+ (sodium) higher on outside K+ (calcium) higher on inside Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative Action (Electrical) Potential: rush of Na+ inside cell AKA “Depolarization” Repolarization: K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance change in charges ```
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The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse- Depolarization : Repolarization
Depolarization: Na+ rush inside cell Repolarization: K+ rush out to restore balance Depolarization: Repolarization moves in ONE direction
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The Synaptic Transmission
SYNAPSE: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites Impulse reaches axon terminals Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft ``` Major Neurotransmitters (NTs): Acetylcholine Most common primary NT of the PANS Epinephrine Norepinephrine primary NT of the SANS Serotonin Dopamine Endorphins ```
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The Reflex Arc
``` Involuntary reaction to external stimulus i.e. Knee-jerk reflex Homeostasis maintenance Examples: Heartbeat/breathing rates Digestion Coughing Sneezing Swallowing Vomiting Involuntary reaction to external stimulus ```
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Grouping of Neural Tissue
``` White matter Groups of myelinated axons Forms nerve tracts in CNS Gray matter Nerve cell bodies and dendrites Unmyelinated axon bundles Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain Horns: gray matter in spinal cord ``` Neural tissue consists of the primary components (axon, cell body, & dendrites) of a neuron: Nerve: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the PNS Tract: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the CNS Ganglia: neuron cell bodies inside the PNS Nucleus: neuron cell bodies and dendrites inside the CNS
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The Spinal Cord’s Anatomy
Continuation of the brain’s medulla oblongata 31 segments; each has a pair of spinal nerves Protected by meninges: Dura mater (“Tough mother”)- outermost layer Arachnoid (“Web”)- middle layer Pia mater (“Delicate mother”)- innermost layer
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Functions of the Spinal Cord
``` Conveys sensory impulses to the brain Integrates reflexes Spinal nerves connect at roots Dorsal (posterior) root: sensory Ventral (anterior) root: motor ```
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The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy
All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae
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The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy
``` Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord Cervical: 8 pairs Thoracic: 12 pairs Lumbar: 5 pairs Sacral: 5 pairs Coccygeal: 1 pair ```
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Drugs that Act on the CNS: Depressants
Valium Low Doses: Relieves tension High Doses: Drowsiness, Sedation, and Loss of any pain sensations Opiates (i.e. Codeine and Heroin) Sedatives and Analgesics; Euphoria Overuse: coma, convulsions, and respiratory problems that could lead to death Marijuana- from hemp plant; produces Euphoria Hashish- more potent cousin of marijuana (come from different part of hemp plant) produces Euphoria AND alters perception of time and space. Overuse: Hallucinations, Respiratory Problems
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Drugs that Act on the CNS: Stimulants
``` Cocaine Euphoria (quick) Overuse: Changes in personality, seizures, and death (from stroke or abnormal rhythms of the heart) LSD Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses ``` Amphetamines- Over-stimulate postsynaptic neurons: Euphoria, Muscle spasms, restlessness, rapid heartbeat, & hypertension Overuse: Death (from respiratory or heart failure)
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Drugs that Act on the CNS: Hallucinogens
LSD Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses A Stimulant
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Drugs that Act on the CNS: Anabolic Steroids
``` Act like the male sex hormones Cause skeletal muscle cells to increase in size Overuse: negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus of the brain and the pituitary gland In sex hormones  In testes size & sterility Liver Problems Heart Disease Anger ```
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Afferent peripheral system (sensory neurons)
carries info to the brain
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efferent peripheral system (motor neurons)
carry info away from the brain
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Microglial: phagocytosis
(swallowing of foreign agents)
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The Structure of a Neuron 2
Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common! Most MOTOR neurons Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon Most INTERNEURONS neurons Unipolar: one process extending from cell body Most SENSORY neurons
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``` C-ome L-ets G-et S-un B-urned ```
``` statum corneum- protection keritinized cells stratum lucidum- clear stratum germanium statum spnosom statum basale - where new cells are made ```
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synarthrosis
``` don't move made of har cartilage fixed fibrocartilage syndesmosis (ligament) ```
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amphiarthrosis
slightly moveable fibrocartilage hyaline cartilage
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diarthrosis (synovial)
freely moving | hyaline
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6 synovial joints
1. ball and socket 2. pivot 3. hinge 4. saddle 5 condyloid 6 gliding
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main Parts of the Brain
``` MAIN PARTS Brainstem Diencephalon Cerebrum Cerebellum ```
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protection parts of the brain
PROTECTION Cranial bones Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid
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Ventricles of the brain
VENTRICLES 4 Ventricles Interventricular foramen
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Brain stem parts
Midbrain Pons Medulla
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parts of the Diencephalon
Diencephalon Thalamus Hypothalamus
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The Principal Parts of the Brain:
PROTECTION
``` PROTECTION Cranial bones Meninges Epidural Space Dura Mater Subdural Space Arachnoid Mater Subarachnoid Space Pia Mater Cerebrolspinal fluid (CSF) Inside the subrachnoid space ```
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The Principal Parts of the Brain:
VENTRICLES
(Sagittal Cross Sectional View)
VENTRICLES- Spaces where CSF is produced and circulated 4 Ventricles Interventricular foramen- connects the Lateral Ventricles with the 3rd Ventricle Cerebral Aqueduct- connects the 3rd & 4th Ventricles
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Midbrain
Midbrain Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord Dorsal tectum: reflex center Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli) Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)
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Pons varolii
Pons varolii Connects spinal cord with brain Connects parts of brain with each other Helps control breathing
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Medulla oblongata
``` Medulla oblongata Ascending and descending tracts Connect spinal cord with the brain Some tracts cross over in medulla Reticular formation: controls consciousness Reflex centers ```
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Diencephalon:
``` Diencephalon: Optic Tracts Mammillary bodies Thalamus Epithalamus Houses Pineal gland Hypothalamus Optic tracts: Visual Relay System Mammillary bodies: Memory and emotional responses Thalamus Relay station for sensory impulses Interpretation center for pain, temperature and touch Epithalamus: contains Pineal gland Hypothalamus: ```
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Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus: Homeostasis Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system Receives sensory impulses from internal organs Controls the Pituitary gland (linked via the Infundibulum) and links endocrine and nervous systems
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The Cerebrum Structure and Function
Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres Gyri: folds Sulci: grooves Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
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Cerebral cortex:
Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
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Longitudinal fissure:
Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres
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Gyri:
Gyri: folds
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Sulci:
Sulci: grooves
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Corpus callosum:
Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
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Surface of the cortex
Motor areas control muscular movements Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses Association areas process emotions and intellect
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Cerebral hemispheres
``` Cerebral hemispheres Frontal lobe: Parietal lobe: Temporal lobe: Occipital lobe: ```
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Frontal lobe:
Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation
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Parietal lobe:
Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature
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Temporal lobe:
Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment
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Occipital lobe:
Occipital lobe: vision
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The Cerebellum: Structure
Butterfly-shaped | Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis
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The Cerebellum: Function
Reflex center in coordinating complex skeletal muscular movements Maintaining posture Maintaining balance
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The Autonomic Nervous System
``` Subdivision of efferent PNS Functions without conscious effort Regulates functions of internal organs Assists in maintaining homeostasis Helps deal with emergency situations ```
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The Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic
Sympathetic “ Fight or Flight” Response Energy and stressful situations Increases heartbeat and breathing rates Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine
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The Autonomic Nervous System: Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic “ Rest & Digest” Response Restores body to nonstressful state Stimulates digestion, urination and defecation Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
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The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions (cont’d.)
``` (I) Olfactory: smell (II) Optic: sight (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball constriction of pupil (via parasympathetic nervous system) (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in) ```
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(I) Olfactory:
(I) Olfactory: smell
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(II) Optic:
(II) Optic: sight
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(III) Oculomotor:
(III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball constriction of pupil (via parasympathetic nervous system)
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(IV) Trochlear:
(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in)

Anatomy 141 (19 decks)

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