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Anatomy 141 > final > Flashcards

final Flashcards

1
Q

Introduction to The Muscular System

A

Skeletal muscles: movement in environment•Smooth muscles: intestines, ureters, veins and arteries•Cardiac muscle: pumps blood through heart and blood vessels•40–50% of body weight

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2
Q

The Types of Muscle

A
  1. Skeletal
  2. Smooth
  3. Cardiac
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3
Q

Skeletal

A

Skeletal: voluntary, striated, and multinucleated

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4
Q

Smooth

A

Smooth: involuntary, nonstriated, and uninucleated

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5
Q

Cardiac

A

Cardiac: involuntary, striated, and uninucleated

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6
Q

The Anatomy of Skeletal or Striated Muscle

A
  • Skeletal muscle cell surrounded by sarcolemma
  • Fasciculi: bundles of fascicles
  • Fascicles: individual bundles of muscle fibers
  • Perimysium: surrounds each fascicle
  • Epimysium: covers the perimysium
  • Fascia: covers the epimysium•Myosin: A bands
  • Actin: I bands
  • Z lines
  • H zone
  • Sarcomere: between two adjacent Z lines–Actual contraction process occurs here
  • Sarcotubular system–T system and sarcoplasmic reticulum
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7
Q

Introduction to The Physiology of Muscle Contraction

A
  • Motor unit: all muscle cells innervated by one motor neuron
  • Muscle cell properties–Excitability–Conductivity–Contractility–Elasticity
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8
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Neuroelectrical Factors

A

•Na+ higher concentration outside muscle cell
•K+ higher concentration inside muscle cell
•Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative
•Electrical potential: rush of Na+ inside cell
•K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance
•Action potential
–Calcium released
–Troponin and tropomyosin action inhibited
–Activated myosin links to actin filaments

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9
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Chemical Interactions

A
  • Myosin heads contain ATP
  • ATP releases energy upon myosin/action link
  • Energy released used to pull action
  • Sodium: potassium pump pumps out sodium
  • Resting potential restored
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10
Q

The Physiology of Muscle Contraction: Energy Sources

A

•ATP: energy source for muscle contraction
•ATP production
–Glycolysis
–Krebs citric acid cycle
–Electron transport
•Alternate sources: fatty acids and phosphocreatine

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11
Q

The Muscle Twitch

A

•Stimulus > latent period > contraction > relaxation
•Contraction strength depends on
–Strength, speed, and duration of stimulus
–Weight of load
–Temperature
•All-or-none law

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12
Q

Muscle Tone

A

•State of partial contraction throughout whole muscle
•Maintains pressure on abdominal contents
•Helps maintain blood pressure
•Aids digestion
•Types
–Isotonic, isometric

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13
Q

The Anatomy of Smooth Muscle

A 
•Found in hollow structures
•Involuntary, uninucleated, nonstriated
•Arrangement (two layers)
–Longitudinal (outer)
–Circular (inner)
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14
Q

The Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle

A
  • Autonomic nervous system control
  • Involuntary, uninucleated, striated
  • Intercalated disks: coordinate contraction
  • Cardiac muscles: contract, relax, and contract 75 times/minute
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15
Q

The Naming and Actions of Skeletal Muscles

A
  • Action
  • Shape
  • Origin and insertion
  • Location
  • Direction of fibers
  • Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle
  • Insertion: movable attachment of muscle
  • Tendons: attach muscle to bone
  • Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon
  • Flexors: bend limb at a joint
  • Extensor: straighten limb at a joint
  • Abductors: move limb away from midline
  • Adductors: bring limb toward midline
  • Rotators: revolve limb around axis
  • Dorsiflexors: raise the foot
  • Plantar flexors: lower the foot
  • Supinators: turn palm upward
  • Pronators: turn palm downward
  • Levators: raise a part of the body
  • Depressors: lower a part of the body
  • Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action
  • Antagonists: oppose agonists
  • Synergists: assist prime movers
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16
Q

Origin

A

Origin: more fixed attachment of muscle

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17
Q

Insertion

A

Insertion: movable attachment of muscle

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18
Q

Tendons

A

Tendons: attach muscle to bone

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19
Q

Aponeurosis:

A

Aponeurosis: wide flat tendon

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20
Q

Flexors

A

Flexors: bend limb at a joint

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21
Q

Extensor

A

Extensor: straighten limb at a joint

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22
Q

Abductors

A

Abductors: move limb away from midline

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23
Q

Adductors

A

Adductors: bring limb toward midline

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24
Q

Rotators

A

Rotators: revolve limb around axis

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25
Q

Dorsiflexors

A

Dorsiflexors: raise the foot

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26
Q

Plantar flexors:

A

Plantar flexors: lower the foot

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27
Q

Supinators

A

Supinators: turn palm upward

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28
Q

Pronators

A

Pronators: turn palm downward

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29
Q

Levators

A

•Levators: raise a part of the body

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30
Q

Depressors

A

Depressors: lower a part of the body

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31
Q

Prime movers or agonists

A

Prime movers or agonists: bring about an action

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32
Q

Antagonists

A

Antagonists: oppose agonists

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33
Q

Synergists

A

Synergists: assist prime movers

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34
Q

The Function and Location of Selected Skeletal Muscles: Superficial Muscles

A

Superficial muscles of the body, anterior view

Superficial muscles of the body, posterior view

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35
Q

Muscles of Facial Expression

A
  • Occipitalis
  • Frontalis
  • Zygomaticus
  • Levator labii superioris
  • Orbicularis oris and buccinator
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36
Q

Muscles of Mastication

A
  • Masseter
  • Temporalis
  • Pterygoid
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37
Q

Muscles of the Eye

A
  • Superior rectus•Inferior rectus
  • Medial rectus•Lateral rectus
  • Superior and inferior oblique
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38
Q

Muscles Moving the Head

A

Sternocleidomastoid
–Contraction of both causes flexion of neck
–Contraction of one causes rotation to left or right

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39
Q

Muscles Moving the Shoulder Girdle

A
  • Levator scapulae
  • Rhomboids
  • Pectoralis minor
  • Trapezius
  • Serratus anterior
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40
Q

Muscles Moving the Humerus

A
  • Pectoralis major
  • Latissimus dorsi
  • Teres minor
  • Deltoid
  • Supraspinatus
  • Infraspinatus
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41
Q

Muscles Moving the Elbow

A
  • Brachialis
  • Biceps brachii
  • Brachioradialis
  • Triceps brachii
  • Anconeus
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42
Q

Muscles Moving the Wrist

A
  • Flexor carpi

* Extensor carpi

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43
Q

Muscles Moving the Hand

A
  • Supinator
  • Pronator teres
  • Pronator quadratus
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44
Q

Muscles Moving the Thumb

A
  • Flexor pollicis
  • Extensor pollicis
  • Adductor pollicis
  • Abductor pollicis
  • Opponens pollicis
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45
Q

Muscles Moving the Fingers

A
  • Flexor digitorum
  • Extensor digitorum
  • Interossei
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46
Q

Muscles of the Abdominal Wall

A
  • External oblique
  • Internal oblique
  • Transversus abdominis
  • Rectus abdominis
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47
Q

Muscles of Respiration or Breathing

A

•Diaphragm
–Main muscle
•External and internal intercostals
–Expand the ribs

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48
Q

Muscles Moving the Femur

A
  • Psoas
  • Iliacus
  • Gluteus maximus
  • Gluteus medius
  • Gluteus minimus
  • Tensor fascia lata
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49
Q

Muscles Moving the Knee Joint

A
  • Biceps femoris
  • Semitendinosus
  • Semimembranosus
  • Popliteus
  • Gracilis
  • Sartorius
  • Quadriceps femoris
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50
Q

Muscles Moving the Foot

A
  • Gastrocnemius
  • Tibialis posterior
  • Soleus
  • Peroneus longus
  • Plantaris
  • Tibialis anterior
  • Peroneus tertius
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51
Q

Muscles Moving the Toes

A
  • Flexor hallucis
  • Extensor hallucis
  • Flexor digitorum
  • Extensor digitorum
  • Abductor hallucis
  • Abductor digiti minimi
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52
Q

The Nervous SystemIntroduction, Spinal Cord, and Spinal Nerves Introduction

A

•Control center and communication network
–Directs functions of body’s organs and systems
–Interprets external environment
–Determines reaction to change
•Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

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53
Q

Homeostasis

A

Homeostasis: balanced internal environment–Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

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54
Q

Organization

A

•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
•Peripheral nervous system
–Afferent peripheral system
•Sensory neurons
–Efferent peripheral system
•Somatic
•Autonomic: sympathetic and parasympathetic

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55
Q

•Central nervous system

A

•Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord

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56
Q

•Peripheral nervous system

A

•Peripheral nervous system

–Afferent peripheral system

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57
Q

•Sensory neurons

A

•Sensory neurons

–Efferent peripheral system

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58
Q

Neuroglia Cells

A
  • Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier
  • Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation
  • Microglial: phagocytosis
  • Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain
  • Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system
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59
Q

Astrocytes

A

•Astrocytes: support, connection, blood-brain barrier

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60
Q

Oligodendroglia

A

•Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation

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61
Q

Microglial

A

Microglial: phagocytosis

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62
Q

Ependymal

A

•Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain

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63
Q

Schwann

A

Schwann: myelin sheaths in peripheral nervous system

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64
Q

The Structure of a Neuron

A

•Cell body
•Dendrites: receptive areas
•Axon: extension of cell body
–Schwann cells
–Nodes of Ranvier
•Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body
•Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
•Unipolar: one process extending from cell body
•Receptors: detect environmental stimuli
•Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site
•Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing
•Motor: reaction to the stimulus

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65
Q

•Dendrites

A

•Dendrites: receptive areas

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66
Q

Axon

A

•Axon: extension of cell body
–Schwann cells
–Nodes of Ranvier

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67
Q

Multipolar

A

Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body

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68
Q

Bipolar

A

Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon

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69
Q

Unipolar:

A

Unipolar: one process extending from cell body

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70
Q

Receptors

A

Receptors: detect environmental stimuli

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71
Q

Sensory

A

Sensory: receive impulse from receptor site

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72
Q

Internuncial

A

•Internuncial: transmit impulse for interpretation and processing

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73
Q

Motor

A

•Motor: reaction to the stimulus

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74
Q

The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse

A 
•Nerve cell fiber resting potential
–Na+ concentration higher on outside
–K+ concentration higher on inside
–Negative charge on inside
–Positive charge on outside
•Depolarization: Na+ rush inside cell
•Repolarization: K+ rush out to restore balance
•Depolarization: Repolarization moves in one direction
•Myelinated vs. unmyelinated
•All-or-none law
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75
Q

The Synaptic Transmission

A 
•Synapse: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites
•Impulse reaches axon terminals
•Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft
•Neurotransmitters
–Acetylcholine
•Most common
–Epinephrine
–Norepinephrine
–Serotonin
–Dopamine
–Endorphins
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76
Q

The Reflex Arc

A 
•Knee-jerk reflex
•Maintain homeostasis
–Heartbeat/breathing rates
–Digestion
–Coughing
–Sneezing
–Swallowing
–Vomiting
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77
Q

Grouping of Neural Tissue

A 
•White matter
–Groups of myelinated axons
–Forms nerve tracts in CNS
•Gray matter
–Nerve cell bodies and dendrites
–Unmyelinated axon bundles
–Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
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78
Q

Grouping of Neural Tissue

A 
•White matter
–Groups of myelinated axons
–Forms nerve tracts in CNS
•Gray matter
–Nerve cell bodies and dendrites
–Unmyelinated axon bundles
–Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
•Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS
•Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS
•Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS
•Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS
•Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord
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79
Q

White matter

A

•White matter
–Groups of myelinated axons
–Forms nerve tracts in CNS

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80
Q

Gray matter

A

•Gray matter
–Nerve cell bodies and dendrites
–Unmyelinated axon bundles
–Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain

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81
Q

Nerve

A

•Nerve: bundle of fibers outside CNS

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82
Q

Ganglia

A

•Ganglia: nerve cell bodies outside CNS

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83
Q

Tract

A

•Tract: bundle of fibers inside CNS

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84
Q

Nucleus

A

•Nucleus: nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside CNS

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85
Q

Horns

A

•Horns: areas of gray matter in spinal cord

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86
Q

The Spinal Cord Introduction

A 
•Continuation of medulla oblongata
•31 segments each with a pair of spinal nerves
•Protected by meninges
–Dura mater
–Arachnoid
–Pia mater
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87
Q

Functions of the Spinal Cord

A 
•Conveys sensory impulses to the brain
•Integrates reflexes
•Spinal nerves connect at roots
–Dorsal root: sensory
–Ventral root: motor
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88
Q

The Spinal Nerves

A

•All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots
•Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers
•Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae
•Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord
–Cervical: 8 pairs
–Thoracic: 12 pairs
–Lumbar: 5 pairs
–Sacral: 5 pairs
–Coccygeal: 1 pair

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89
Q

The Nervous SystemThe Brain, Cranial Nerves, Autonomic Nervous System, and the Special Senses Introduction

A

•Brain is divided into four main parts
–Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli
–Diencephalon: controls homeostasis
–Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions
–Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance

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90
Q

Brainstem

A

–Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat rates and reactions to auditory and visual stimuli

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91
Q

Diencephalon

A

–Diencephalon: controls homeostasis

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92
Q

Cerebrum

A

–Cerebrum: controls intellectual processes and emotions

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93
Q

Cerebellum

A

–Cerebellum: maintains body posture and balance

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94
Q

•Brain is divided into four main parts

A

–Brainstem:
–Diencephalon:
–Cerebrum:
–Cerebellum:

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95
Q

The Principal Parts of the Brain

A 
•Main parts: brainstem, diencephalon, cerebrum, and cerebellum
•Protection
–Cranial bones
–Meninges
–Cerebrospinal fluid
•Ventricles
–Interventricular foramen
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96
Q

•Main parts of the brain

A

•Main parts:

  1. brainstem,
  2. diencephalon,
  3. cerebrum,
  4. and cerebellum
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97
Q

Protection for the brain

A

Protection
–Cranial bones
–Meninges
–Cerebrospinal fluid

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98
Q

Ventricles of the brain

A

Interventricular foramen

99
Q

The Anatomy and Functions of the Brainstem

A
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Pons varolii
  • Midbrain
100
Q

Medulla oblongata

A 
•Medulla oblongata
–Ascending and descending tracts
–Connect spinal cord with the brain
–Some tracts cross over in medulla
–Reticular formation: controls consciousness
–Reflex centers
101
Q

•Pons varolii

A

•Pons varolii
–Connects spinal cord with brain
–Connects parts of brain with each other
–Helps control breathing

102
Q

•Midbrain

A

•Midbrain
–Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord
–Dorsal tectum: reflex center
–Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli)
–Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)

103
Q

The Anatomy and Functions of the Diencephalon

A

•Optic tracts
•Mamillary bodies: memory and emotional responses
•Thalamus
–Relay station for sensory impulses
–Interpretation center for pain, temperature, and touch
•Epithalamus: contains pineal gland
•Hypothalamus: homeostasis
–Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system
–Receives sensory impulses from internal organs
–Controls pituitary gland and links endocrine and nervous systems

104
Q

The Cerebrum: Structure and Function

A

•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
•Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres
•Gyri: folds
•Sulci: grooves
•Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres
•Surface of the cortex
–Motor areas control muscular movements
–Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses
–Association areas process emotions and intellect
•Cerebral hemispheres
–Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation
–Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature
–Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment
–Occipital lobe: vision

105
Q

•Cerebral cortex

A

•Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface

106
Q

•Longitudinal fissure

A

•Longitudinal fissure separates two hemispheres

107
Q

•Gyri:

A

•Gyri: folds

108
Q

Sulci:

A

•Sulci: grooves

109
Q

•Corpus callosum

A

•Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres

110
Q

•Surface of the cortex

A

•Surface of the cortex
–Motor areas control muscular movements
–Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses
–Association areas process emotions and intellect

111
Q

•Cerebral hemispheres

A

•Cerebral hemispheres
–Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation
–Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature
–Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment
–Occipital lobe: vision

112
Q

The Cerebellum: Structure and Function

A 
•Butterfly-shaped
•Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis
•Functions
–Coordinating muscular movements
–Maintaining posture
–Maintaining balance
113
Q

The Autonomic Nervous System

A

•Subdivision of efferent PNS•Functions without conscious effort
•Regulates functions of internal organs
•Assists in maintaining homeostasis
•Helps deal with emergency situations
•Sympathetic
–Energy and stressful situations–Increases heartbeat and breathing rates
–Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and norepinephrine
•Parasympathetic
–Restores body to nonstressful state
–Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine
–Stimulates digestion, urination, and defecation

114
Q

The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions

A
  • (I) Olfactory: smell
  • (II) Optic: sight
  • (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
  • (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
  • (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
  • (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
  • (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
  • (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
  • (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
  • (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
  • (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
  • (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
115
Q
  • (I) Olfactory: smell
  • (II) Optic: sight
  • (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
  • (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
  • (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
  • (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
  • (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
  • (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
  • (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
  • (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
  • (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
  • (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
A
  • (I) Olfactory: smell
  • (II) Optic: sight
  • (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
  • (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
  • (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
  • (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
  • (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
  • (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
  • (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
  • (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
  • (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
  • (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
116
Q
  • (I) Olfactory: smell
  • (II) Optic: sight
  • (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
  • (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
  • (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
  • (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
  • (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
  • (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
  • (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
  • (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
  • (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
  • (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
A
  • (I) Olfactory: smell
  • (II) Optic: sight
  • (III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil
  • (IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball
  • (V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth
  • (VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball
  • (VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands
  • (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
  • (IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands
  • (X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses
  • (XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement
  • (XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
117
Q

•(I) Olfactory

A

•(I) Olfactory: smell

118
Q

•(II) Optic:

A

•(II) Optic: sight

119
Q

•(III) Oculomotor:

A

•(III) Oculomotor: movement of eyeball, constriction of pupil

120
Q

•(IV) Trochlear:

A

•(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball

121
Q

•(V) Trigeminal:

A

•(V) Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth

122
Q

•(VI) Abducens:

A

•(VI) Abducens: movement of eyeball

123
Q

•(VII) Facial:

A

•(VII) Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and salivary glands

124
Q

•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear:

A

•(VIII) Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing

125
Q

•(IX) Glossopharyngeal:

A

•(IX) Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste, salivary glands

126
Q

•(X) Vagus:

A

•(X) Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory impulses

127
Q

•(XI) Accessory:

A

•(XI) Accessory: swallowing, head movement

128
Q

•(XII) Hypoglossal:

A

•(XII) Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech

129
Q

The Special Senses

A
  1. The Sense of Smell
  2. The Sense of Taste
  3. The Sense of Sight
  4. The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
130
Q

The Sense of Smell

A
  • Molecules in air dissolve in nasal mucus
  • Bipolar sensory neurons transfer chemical impulse
  • Olfactory bulbs receive impulse
  • Impulse sent to olfactory cortex
  • Odor variety dependent on brain interpretation
131
Q

The Sense of Taste

A
  • Taste buds on tongue, palate, and pharynx
  • Taste bud cell types–Exterior capsule: epithelial cells–Interior: taste cells
  • Taste depends on chemicals dissolved in saliva
  • Taste influenced by olfactory sensations
132
Q

The Sense of Sight

A 
•Eyes protected by eyelids and eyelashes
•Tears
–Lubricate the eyes
–Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme
–Contain salt and gamma globulin
133
Q

The Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium

A

•Outer ear
–Auricle: external, visible, flexible part
–External auditory meatus
•Lined with hair and ceruminous glands
–Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound

•Middle ear
–Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes
–Openings: oval and round windows
–Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure

•Inner ear
–Cochlea: hearing
–Equilibrium•Static: vestibule
•Kinetic: semicircular canals

134
Q

•Outer ear

A

•Outer ear
–Auricle: external, visible, flexible part
–External auditory meatus
•Lined with hair and ceruminous glands
–Tympanic membrane: vibrates in response to sound

135
Q

•Middle ear

A

•Middle ear
–Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes
–Openings: oval and round windows
–Eustachian tube: equalizes pressure

136
Q

•Inner ear

A

•Inner ear
–Cochlea: hearing
–Equilibrium•Static: vestibule
•Kinetic: semicircular canals

137
Q

•Molecules in air dissolve where?

A

in nasal mucus

138
Q

•Bipolar sensory neurons transfer what?

A

chemical impulse

139
Q

•Olfactory bulbs receive what?

A

impulse

140
Q

•Impulse sent where?

A

to olfactory cortex

141
Q

•Odor variety dependent on what?

A

brain interpretation

142
Q

•Taste buds reside on?

A

on tongue, palate, and pharynx

143
Q

•Taste bud cell types

A

Exterior capsule: epithelial cells

–Interior: taste cells

144
Q

•Taste depends on what?

A

chemicals dissolved in saliva

145
Q

•Taste influenced by what?

A

by olfactory sensations

146
Q

•Eyes protected by what?

A

eyelids and eyelashes

147
Q

•Tears

A

–Lubricate the eyes
–Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme enzyme
–Contain salt and gamma globulin

148
Q

The Endocrine System Introduction

A

•Maintains internal environment (homeostasis)
•Hypothalamus: sends chemical signals to pituitary
•Endocrine glands
–Ductless
–Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream

149
Q

The Functions of Hormones

A

•Control cellular respiration, growth, and reproduction
•Control body fluids and electrolyte balance
•Control secretion of other hormones
•Control behavior patterns
•Regulate reproductive cycles, growth, and development
•Chemical control functions as negative feedback loop
–Thermostat turns furnace on when temperature falls below set point
•Hormones function similarly

150
Q

The Classification of Hormones

A 
•Modified amino acids 
–Epinephrine, oxytocin•Proteins 
–Insulin, growth hormones
•Steroid 
–Cortisol, estrogen
151
Q

The Hypothalamus of the Brain

A

•Controls secretions of the pituitary gland
•Nerve cells produce chemical signals
–Releasing hormones
–Releasing inhibitory hormones
–Controlled by negative feedback from endocrine system

152
Q

The Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

A

The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders

153
Q

The Anterior Pituitary Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders

A

•Growth hormone (GH): cell metabolism and growth
–Decreased production
•Dwarfism: childhood
–Increased production
•Gigantism: childhood
•Acromegaly: post puberty
–Controlled by two releasing hormones from hypothalamus
•Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates thyroid
•Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex
•Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates melanocytes
•Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
–Females
•Stimulates ovarian follicle development
–Males
•Stimulates sperm cell production
•Luteinizing hormone (LH)
–Females•Stimulates ovulation and progesterone production
–Males
•Testosterone production
•Lactogenic hormone (prolactin): stimulates milk production in females
–May cause decrease in male sex hormones

154
Q

The Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Hormones

A

•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
–Increased water reabsorption in kidney tubules
–Deficiency results in diabetes insipidus
–Regulated through osmoreceptors
•Dehydration causes water conservation
•Oxytocin
–Contraction of uterine smooth muscles
–Constriction of mammary gland cells (lactation)
–Given after childbirth to constrict blood vessels to minimize risk of hemorrhage

155
Q

The Thyroid Gland, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders

A 
•Located below larynx on either side of trachea
•Requires iodine
•Hormones
–Thyroxine (T4): metabolism
–Triiodothyronine (T3): metabolism
–Calcitonin: regulation of calcium and phosphate concentration
•Hypothyroidism
–Cretinism
–Lowered metabolic rate
–Myxedema
•Hyperthyroidism
–Elevated metabolism
–Graves’ disease
•Exophthalmia
156
Q

The Parathyroid Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders

A

•Located within the posterior thyroid gland•Chief cells secrete parathormone (PTH)
•PTH stimulates bone cell release of calcium and phosphate
•Hyperparathyroidism
–Breakdown of bone matrix
•Hypoparathyroidism
–Low calcium level in blood

157
Q

The Adrenal Glands, Their Hormones, and Some Disorders

A

•Located on top of each kidney
•Adrenal medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine
•Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, androgens
•Disorders
–Addison’s disease: lack of adrenal cortex hormones
–Cushing’s syndrome: too much adrenal cortex hormones

158
Q

The Pancreas, Its Hormones, and Some Disorders

A

•Islets of Langerhans•Beta cells: insulin production
•Alpha cells: glucagon production
•Blood glucose levels regulated by negative feedback
•Disorders
–Low blood glucose: acidosis
–High blood glucose: excess kidney production, dehydration
–Diabetes mellitus: insufficient insulin production

159
Q

The Testes and the Ovaries

A
  • Testes: testosterone–Development of male reproduction structures–Development of male sex characteristics
  • Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone–Development of female reproductive organs–Development of female sex characteristics–Control menstrual cycle
160
Q

The Thymus Gland and Its Hormone

A
  • Located behind the sternum
  • Secretes thymosin
  • Important for T cell production
  • Thymus shrinks as we age
161
Q

The Pineal Gland and Its Hormone

A 
•Located in the brain near the thalamus
•Melatonin
–Inhibits reproductive functions
–Regulates body rhythms
•Serotonin: neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor
–Stimulates smooth muscle contractions
162
Q

the semitendinosus has

A

a really long tendon

163
Q

rectus means

A

straight up and down

164
Q

gracilis is

A

the most medial muscle

165
Q

the tibia is on the

A

big toe side

166
Q

the fibula is on the

A

little toe side

167
Q

the fibula is also known as

A

peroneus longus

168
Q

anterior leg muscle=

A

extends foot/toes

169
Q

posterior leg muscles=

A

flexes foot/toes

170
Q

hallucis=

A

big toe

171
Q

the big toe is medial or lateral

A

medial

172
Q

little toe os medial or lateral

A

lateral

173
Q

ab - ductor

A

away from midline

174
Q

ad- ductor

A

towards the midline

175
Q

interossei

A

in between bones

176
Q

flaccid

A

limp

177
Q

trophic

A

growth

178
Q

hyper

A

alot

179
Q

atrophy

A

no growth

180
Q

myo =

A

muscle

181
Q

myalgia ==

A

pain

182
Q

my =

A

muscle

183
Q

The Nervous System

Introduction, Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

A

Control center and communication network
Directs functions of body’s organs and systems
Interprets external environment
Determines reaction to change
Homeostasis: balanced internal environment
Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

184
Q

Organization of nervous system

A

Central Nervous System (CNS)- BRAIN and SPINAL CORD
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- NERVES
AFFERENT peripheral system (Sensory neurons)
EFFERENT peripheral system (motor neurons)
Somatic- conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to skeletal muscle
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): conducts impulses from the brain & spinal cord to smooth muscle tissue, cardiac tissue, & the glands
Sympathetic (SANS): Stimulates & speeds up metabolic actions
‘Fight or Flight’ Response (i.e. heart rate & sweating)
Parasympathetic (PANS): Slows down metabolic actions:
Stimulate digestion, urination, and defecation:
“Rest & Digestion” Response

185
Q

Classification of Nerve Cells

A

Provide unique functions
Sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling, muscle activity, regulating glandular secretions
Support, protect, & nourish the neurons
Maintains homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes it

186
Q

Neuroglia Cells (Support Cells)

A

**60% of ALL Brain Cells!
Astrocytes: support, connection, blood brain barrier
Oligodendroglia: support, myelin sheath formation in central nervous system (CNS)
Schwann: myelin sheath formation in peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Microglial: phagocytosis
Ependymal: line the ventricles of the brain

187
Q

The Structure of a Neuron

A 
Cell body: Control Center
Dendrites: receptive areas
Axon: extension of cell body
Schwann cells- myelinated portions
Nodes of Ranvier- unmyelinated portions
Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common!
Most MOTOR neurons
Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
Most INTERNEURONS neurons
Unipolar: one process extending from cell body
Most SENSORY neurons
188
Q

The Structure of a Neuron 3

A

Receptors: detect environmental stimuli
Sensory (afferent) neurons:
Receive stimulus impulse from receptor site
Carry impulses to the brain
Internuncial (Interneurons):
transmit impulse for interpretation and processing
Carry impulses between neurons
Motor (efferent) neurons:
React to the stimulus
Carry impulses from the brain to “effector” organs

189
Q

The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse

A 
Concentration of electrolytes:
Na+ (sodium) higher on outside
K+ (calcium) higher on inside
Resting potential: charge outside positive and inside negative
Action (Electrical) Potential: 
rush of Na+ inside cell
AKA “Depolarization”
Repolarization: 
K+ moves outside cell attempting to balance change in charges
190
Q

The Physiology of the Nerve Impulse- Depolarization : Repolarization

A

Depolarization:
Na+ rush inside cell

Repolarization:
K+ rush out to restore balance

Depolarization: Repolarization
moves in ONE direction

191
Q

The Synaptic Transmission

A

SYNAPSE: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites
Impulse reaches axon terminals

Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft

Major Neurotransmitters (NTs):
Acetylcholine
Most common
primary NT of the PANS
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
primary NT of the SANS
Serotonin
Dopamine
Endorphins
192
Q

The Reflex Arc

A 
Involuntary reaction to external stimulus
i.e. Knee-jerk reflex
Homeostasis maintenance
Examples:
Heartbeat/breathing rates
Digestion
Coughing
Sneezing
Swallowing
Vomiting 
Involuntary reaction to external stimulus
193
Q

Grouping of Neural Tissue

A 
White matter
Groups of myelinated axons
Forms nerve tracts in CNS
Gray matter
Nerve cell bodies and dendrites
Unmyelinated axon bundles
Cortex: gray matter on surface of brain
Horns: gray matter in spinal cord

Neural tissue consists of the primary components (axon, cell body, & dendrites) of a neuron:

Nerve: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the PNS
Tract: bundle of fibers (axons) inside the CNS

Ganglia: neuron cell bodies inside the PNS
Nucleus: neuron cell bodies and dendrites inside the CNS

194
Q

The Spinal Cord’s Anatomy

A

Continuation of the brain’s medulla oblongata
31 segments; each has a pair of spinal nerves
Protected by meninges:
Dura mater (“Tough mother”)- outermost layer
Arachnoid (“Web”)- middle layer
Pia mater (“Delicate mother”)- innermost layer

195
Q

Functions of the Spinal Cord

A 
Conveys sensory impulses to the brain
Integrates reflexes
Spinal nerves connect at roots
Dorsal (posterior) root: sensory
Ventral (anterior) root: motor
196
Q

The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy

A

All 31 pairs arise from union of dorsal and ventral roots
Mixed nerves consisting of motor and sensory fibers
Most exit vertebral column between vertebrae

197
Q

The Spinal Nerves’ Anatomy

A 
Named and numbered according to region and level of spinal cord
Cervical: 8 pairs
Thoracic: 12 pairs
Lumbar: 5 pairs
Sacral: 5 pairs
Coccygeal: 1 pair
198
Q

Drugs that Act on the CNS: Depressants

A

Valium
Low Doses: Relieves tension
High Doses: Drowsiness, Sedation, and Loss of any pain sensations
Opiates (i.e. Codeine and Heroin)
Sedatives and Analgesics; Euphoria
Overuse: coma, convulsions, and respiratory problems that could lead to death
Marijuana- from hemp plant; produces Euphoria
Hashish- more potent cousin of marijuana (come from different part of hemp plant)
produces Euphoria AND alters perception of time and space.
Overuse: Hallucinations, Respiratory Problems

199
Q

Drugs that Act on the CNS: Stimulants

A 
Cocaine
Euphoria (quick)
Overuse: Changes in personality, seizures, and death (from stroke or abnormal rhythms of the heart)
LSD
Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses

Amphetamines- Over-stimulate postsynaptic neurons:
Euphoria, Muscle spasms, restlessness, rapid heartbeat, & hypertension
Overuse: Death (from respiratory or heart failure)

200
Q

Drugs that Act on the CNS: Hallucinogens

A

LSD
Heightened & Exaggerated 5 senses
A Stimulant

201
Q

Drugs that Act on the CNS: Anabolic Steroids

A 
Act like the male sex hormones 
Cause skeletal muscle cells to increase in size
Overuse:
 negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus of the brain and the pituitary gland
 In sex hormones
     In testes size & sterility
Liver Problems
Heart Disease
 Anger
202
Q

Afferent peripheral system (sensory neurons)

A

carries info to the brain

203
Q

efferent peripheral system (motor neurons)

A

carry info away from the brain

204
Q

Microglial: phagocytosis

A

(swallowing of foreign agents)

205
Q

The Structure of a Neuron 2

A

Multipolar: several dendrites coming off cell body; ** Most common!
Most MOTOR neurons
Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
Most INTERNEURONS neurons
Unipolar: one process extending from cell body
Most SENSORY neurons

206
Q 
C-ome 
L-ets 
G-et
S-un
B-urned
A 
statum corneum- protection keritinized cells 
stratum lucidum- clear
stratum germanium
statum spnosom  
statum basale - where new cells are made
207
Q

synarthrosis

A 
don't move 
made of har cartilage 
fixed 
fibrocartilage 
syndesmosis (ligament)
208
Q

amphiarthrosis

A

slightly moveable
fibrocartilage
hyaline cartilage

209
Q

diarthrosis (synovial)

A

freely moving

hyaline

210
Q

6 synovial joints

A
  1. ball and socket
  2. pivot
  3. hinge
  4. saddle
    5 condyloid
    6 gliding
211
Q

main Parts of the Brain

A 
MAIN PARTS
Brainstem
Diencephalon
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
212
Q

protection parts of the brain

A

PROTECTION
Cranial bones
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid

213
Q

Ventricles of the brain

A

VENTRICLES
4 Ventricles
Interventricular foramen

214
Q

Brain stem parts

A

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla

215
Q

parts of the Diencephalon

A

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

216
Q

The Principal Parts of the Brain:
PROTECTION

A 
PROTECTION
Cranial bones
Meninges
Epidural Space
Dura Mater
Subdural Space
Arachnoid Mater
Subarachnoid Space
Pia Mater
Cerebrolspinal
     fluid (CSF)
Inside the subrachnoid space
217
Q

The Principal Parts of the Brain:
VENTRICLES
(Sagittal Cross Sectional View)

A

VENTRICLES- Spaces where CSF is produced and circulated
4 Ventricles
Interventricular foramen- connects the Lateral Ventricles with the
3rd Ventricle
Cerebral Aqueduct- connects the 3rd & 4th Ventricles

218
Q

Midbrain

A

Midbrain
Ventral cerebral peduncles: convey impulses from cortex to pons and spinal cord
Dorsal tectum: reflex center
Controls movement of head and eyeball (visual stimuli)
Controls movement of head and trunk (auditory stimuli)

219
Q

Pons varolii

A

Pons varolii
Connects spinal cord with brain
Connects parts of brain with each other
Helps control breathing

220
Q

Medulla oblongata

A 
Medulla oblongata
Ascending and descending tracts
Connect spinal cord with the brain
Some tracts cross over in medulla
Reticular formation: controls consciousness
Reflex centers
221
Q

Diencephalon:

A 
Diencephalon:
Optic Tracts
Mammillary bodies
Thalamus
Epithalamus
Houses Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Optic tracts: Visual Relay System
Mammillary bodies: Memory and emotional responses
Thalamus
Relay station for sensory impulses
Interpretation center for pain, temperature and touch
Epithalamus: contains Pineal gland
Hypothalamus:
222
Q

Hypothalamus:

A

Hypothalamus: Homeostasis
Controls and integrates autonomic nervous system
Receives sensory impulses from internal organs
Controls the Pituitary gland (linked via the Infundibulum) and links endocrine and nervous systems

223
Q

The Cerebrum Structure and Function

A

Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres
Gyri: folds
Sulci: grooves
Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres

224
Q

Cerebral cortex:

A

Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface

225
Q

Longitudinal fissure:

A

Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres

226
Q

Gyri:

A

Gyri: folds

227
Q

Sulci:

A

Sulci: grooves

228
Q

Corpus callosum:

A

Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two hemispheres

229
Q

Surface of the cortex

A

Motor areas control muscular movements
Sensory areas interpret sensory impulses
Association areas process emotions and intellect

230
Q

Cerebral hemispheres

A 
Cerebral hemispheres
Frontal lobe: 
Parietal lobe: 
Temporal lobe: 
Occipital lobe:
231
Q

Frontal lobe:

A

Frontal lobe: muscle movement, moods, aggression, smell, motivation

232
Q

Parietal lobe:

A

Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance, taste, temperature

233
Q

Temporal lobe:

A

Temporal lobe: hearing, smell, memory, abstract thought, judgment

234
Q

Occipital lobe:

A

Occipital lobe: vision

235
Q

The Cerebellum: Structure

A

Butterfly-shaped

Two partially separated hemispheres connected by vermis

236
Q

The Cerebellum: Function

A

Reflex center in coordinating complex skeletal muscular movements
Maintaining posture
Maintaining balance

237
Q

The Autonomic Nervous System

A 
Subdivision of efferent PNS
Functions without conscious effort
Regulates functions of internal organs
Assists in maintaining homeostasis
Helps deal with emergency situations
238
Q

The Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic

A

Sympathetic
“ Fight or Flight” Response

Energy and stressful situations
Increases heartbeat and breathing rates
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine

239
Q

The Autonomic Nervous System: Parasympathetic

A

Parasympathetic
“ Rest & Digest” Response

Restores body to nonstressful state
Stimulates digestion, urination and defecation
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine

240
Q

The 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Functions (cont’d.)

A 
(I) Olfactory: smell
(II) Optic: sight
(III) Oculomotor: 
movement of eyeball
constriction of pupil 
 (via parasympathetic nervous system)
(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in)
241
Q

(I) Olfactory:

A

(I) Olfactory: smell

242
Q

(II) Optic:

A

(II) Optic: sight

243
Q

(III) Oculomotor:

A

(III) Oculomotor:
movement of eyeball
constriction of pupil
(via parasympathetic nervous system)

244
Q

(IV) Trochlear:

A

(IV) Trochlear: movement of eyeball (down & in)

Anatomy 141 (19 decks)

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