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Flashcards in Final Exam Deck (118)
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1
Q

which volcano recently started erupting in the Philippines?

A

Mount Mayan

2
Q

when is the Hypatia Stone hypothesized to have formed?

A

before our solar system formed

3
Q

what do you call a scientific idea that has lots of support from being repeatedly tested?

A

a theory

4
Q

what do you call an educated guess

A

a hypothesis

5
Q

what explains that natural processes occur today the same way they did in the past?

A

uniformitarianism

6
Q

what explains that six big bad-events formed the earth?

A

catastrophism

7
Q

what explains the formation of our solar system?

A

the Nebular Hypothesis

8
Q

what resulted from density stratification within the earth?

A

the Theia impact

9
Q

how old is the earth?

A

4.5Ga

10
Q

how does the Sun differ from a protostar?

A

protostars don’t have fusion occurring

11
Q

what process formed the earth?

A

planetary accretion

12
Q

how does continental crust differ from oceanic crust?

A

oceanic crust is denser

13
Q

what are the five physical/mechanical layers of the earth?

A
  1. lithosphere
  2. asthenosphere
  3. mesosphere (lower mantle)
  4. outer core
  5. inner core
14
Q

which layer of earth has the most ductile behavior?

A

outer core

15
Q

define ductile

A

higher temperatures, solids start to become gooey

16
Q

define brittle

A

lower temperatures, rock is strong and hard to break

17
Q

why was continental drift initially rejected?

A

it couldn’t explain how plates moved

18
Q

which discovery led to renewed interest in continental drift during the mid-20th century?

A

magnetic anomalies in seafloor rocks

19
Q

what process helps tectonic plates move?

A

slab suction

20
Q

what type of pate boundary experiences lots of underwater volcanic eruptions?

A

a seafloor spreading site

21
Q

what is a subduction zone?

A

the plate with oceanic crust is forced down

22
Q

where can a modern collision zone boundary be found?

A

the Himalayas

23
Q

what forms where two plates of continental crust collide?

A

mountains

24
Q

what is the most abundant element in earth’s crust?

A

oxygen

25
Q

what are five criteria for minerals?

A
  1. naturally occurring (non-synthetic)
  2. inorganic
  3. crystalline (not amorphous)
  4. solid
  5. set chemical composition
26
Q

how are minerals classified?

A

minerals are grouped by a common anion

27
Q

what is sulfate used for?

A

used to make plaster

28
Q

where are phosphates found?

A

found in bones & teeth and fertilizer

29
Q

where are carbonates found?

A

the shells of most seashells, living organisms

30
Q

what is the most common mineral group?

A

silicates

31
Q

what is the structure of silicates?

A

tetrahedron

32
Q

what kind of rock would melt at the lowest temperature?

A

a wet rock under low pressure

33
Q

what are the three types of magma?

A
  1. basaltic magma
  2. andesitic magma
  3. rhyolitic magma
34
Q

what is the SiO2 content and melting point of basaltic magma?

A

50% SiO2 content

>1100 degrees Celsius melting point

35
Q

what is the SiO2 content and melting point of andesitic magma?

A

60% SiO2 content

1000-900 degrees Celsius melting point

36
Q

what is the SiO2 content and melting point of rhyolitic magma?

A

70% SiO2 content

800-700 degrees Celsius melting point

37
Q

define partial melting

A

some minerals melt while others remain solid

38
Q

define equilibrium crystallization partial freezing

A

no change in chemical when freezing

39
Q

define fractional crystallization partial freezing

A

(more common) some fraction gets pulled out while its freezing

40
Q

which mineral is associated with the continuous branch of Bowen’s reaction series?

A

plagioclase

41
Q

what kind of texture is associated with extrusive igneous rocks?

A

glassy

42
Q

what are the two types of igneous rock?

A
  1. plutonic (intrusive)

2. volcanic (extrusive)

43
Q

what are the textures of intrusive rock?

A
  1. pegmatitic

2. phaneritic

44
Q

what are the textures of extrusive rock?

A
  1. porphyritic
  2. aphanitic
  3. glassy
  4. vesicular
45
Q

which igneous rock composition has the highest silica content?

A

felsic

46
Q

what is viscosity mainly controlled by?

A

temperature and silica content

47
Q

recently erupted lava with a stringy, ropey appearance is called what?

A

pahoehoe

48
Q

what are four types of plutonic rock?

A
  1. dikes
  2. sills
  3. laccolith
  4. batholith
49
Q

what super volcanic eruption caused “the year without a summer”?

A

tambora

50
Q

shield volcanoes typically have what type of eruptions?

A

non-explosive

51
Q

what area recently experienced a magnitude 6.4 earthquake?

A

Taiwan

52
Q

what was the result of a comet hypothesized to have struck the earth 12.8ka?

A

a 1,000 year cold period

53
Q

what refers to the breakdown of rocks?

A

weathering

54
Q

what refers to the transport of sediment?

A

erosion

55
Q

what allows feldspar to chemically weather into kaolinite?

A

H2CO3 and water

56
Q

what refers to the lowering of ground level?

A

subsidence

57
Q

what factors can make a slope unstable?

A
  1. too much water present
  2. too little water present
  3. the slope exceeds the angle of repose
58
Q

what can be done to stabilize a slope?

A

install drainage devices

59
Q

what type of metamorphism would be the result of a formation of a laccolith?

A

contact metamorphism

60
Q

what is fault metamorphism?

A

metamorphism via fluids

61
Q

what is metasomatism

A

when rocks interact with heated up ground fluids

62
Q

what metamorphic rock would form as a result of differential pressure?

A

gneiss

63
Q

what refers to how much the parent rock was altered?

A

grade

64
Q

what refers to a set of index minerals?

A

facies

65
Q

what metamorphic facies is associated with low grade metamorphism?

A

xeolite

66
Q

what refers to the temperature change with increasing depth below the surface?

A

geothermal gradient

67
Q

what facies is associated with contact metamorphism?

A

hornfels

68
Q

what are the three types of tectonic forces?

A
  1. tensional force
  2. compressional force
  3. shearing force
69
Q

what forms as a ductile response to compressional force?

A

a fold

70
Q

what fault forms as a result of tensional force?

A

a normal fault

71
Q

what fault forms as a result of compressional force?

A

a reverse fault

72
Q

what fault forms as a result of shearing force?

A

a left lateral fault

73
Q

is the Grand Canyon a geologic structure?

A

no

74
Q

how many magnitude 2 earthquakes occur on earth each year?

A

1 million

75
Q

what refers to the point directly along the fault where movement occurs during an earthquake?

A

the focus

76
Q

what are associated with earthquakes with unusually deep foci?

A

subduction zones

77
Q

what seismic waves are shear motion?

A

S-waves

78
Q

what seismic waves are compressional?

A

P-waves

79
Q

what material is safest to build on in areas prone to earthquakes?

A

bedrock

80
Q

what scale do scientists use to measure earthquakes?

A

moment

81
Q

what factors would cause an unconformity to form?

A
  1. the sediment supply ran out
  2. there was no accommodation space
  3. erosion occurred faster than deposition
82
Q

what type of unconformity could be present between layers of sandstone and shale?

A

disconformity

83
Q

what geologic principle tells you that a dike is younger than the strata the magma moved through?

A

cross cutting

84
Q

what geologic principle is best for correlation?

A

faunal succession

85
Q

what correlation method utilizes unconformities?

A

sequence stratigraphy

86
Q

dinosaurs lived during which geologic eon?

A

phanerozoic

87
Q

what absolute dating method does not rely on radioactive isotopes?

A

dendrochronology

88
Q

how long is one half-life?

A

the time needed for half the parent atoms present to decay

89
Q

what is needed in order to conduct radiometric dating?

A
  1. radioactive isotopes must be present
  2. need measurable amounts of parent and daughter isotopes
  3. must be a closed system
90
Q

if a specimen was an open system and parent atoms were leached out, what will happen when you date that specimen?

A

the age you calculate will be too old

91
Q

what can you date with C-14?

A

any kind of biologic material

92
Q

C-14 can date specimens as old as…

A

57,000 years old

93
Q

accommodation space measures the space available for what?

A

sediment deposition in a basin

94
Q

what did a recent study suggest cooling 2.7Ma was caused by?

A

dust blown into the Pacific

95
Q

what feature did a recent study of volcanic eruptions focus on?

A

dikes

96
Q

climate reflects surface conditions on earth over what timescale?

A

decadal

97
Q

which Milankovitch cycle describes the wobble of earth on its axis?

A

precession

98
Q

what is the duration of obliquity?

A

41k years

99
Q

what is a measure of reflectivity?

A

albedo

100
Q

greenhouse gasses compose about how much of the atmosphere?

A

less than 1%

101
Q

what cells transport heat from the equator to about 30 degrees latitude?

A

hadley cells

102
Q

what happens to upwelling in the eastern pacific during an El Niño event?

A

upwelling stops

103
Q

why does El Niño cause weather changes in South Carolina?

A

the Jet Stream gets displaced

104
Q

why is thermohaline circulation slowing down?

A

the North Atlantic is getting warmer

105
Q

what ratio has fossil fuel burning altered in the atmosphere?

A

14C/12C

106
Q

why is a 3 degree global average temperature increase considered problematic?

A

many species would likely go extinct

107
Q

what refers to things made or caused by humans?

A

anthropogenic

108
Q

what refers to removing only fine grained material from the surface of a desert?

A

deflation

109
Q

what explains the unusually fast movement of some glaciers?

A

basal slip

110
Q

what type of lake is associated with glacial erosion?

A

tarns

111
Q

what do outwash sediments compose?

A

eskers

112
Q

at what rate is San Francisco sinking?

A

1 cm/yr

113
Q

what problems can result from overdrafting?

A
  1. subsidence
  2. cones of depression
  3. saltwater contamination
114
Q

what are the small stream branches near the mouth of the river?

A

distributaries

115
Q

what rivers have been the cause of lawsuits between states regarding water availability?

A
  1. catawba
  2. tennessee
  3. colorado
116
Q

fossil fuels provide what percentage of our domestic energy needs?

A

81%

117
Q

what is nuclear waste with a half-life of > 20 years?

A

trans-uranic

118
Q

what must an area be classified as to be a candidate for generating wind power?

A

class 3 or higher