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BZ 214: Vertebrates > FINAL EXAM - LOCOMOTION AND DIGESTION IN MAMMALS > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM - LOCOMOTION AND DIGESTION IN MAMMALS Flashcards

(68 cards)

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1
Q

What are the functions of movement?

A
  1. Acquiring food resources
  2. Avoiding predation
  3. Social interactions
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2
Q

Carrier’s Constraint

A

Duw to the lateral motion of the sprawling gait, lungs are compressed, preventing breathing AND walking.

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3
Q

How did the mammalian stance affect breathing?

A

No longer EITHER breathing or walking, can do both at the same time!

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4
Q

What are GRFs and how do they compare between organisms with a sprawling vs. mammalian stance?

A

Ground reaction forces (how much ground hits you when you hit it)

Lower with mammalian stance.

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5
Q

If an animal’s body is closer to the ground, is more or less energy required to move its COM (center of mass)?

A

More energy is needed.

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6
Q

Did early mammalian evolution favor ability to travel long distances or predator-prey relationships?

A

Ability to travel long distances.

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7
Q

What is the efficient posture for mammals?

A

Upright and away from the ground.

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8
Q

The metabolic cost of gait is reduced with _______ limb angles and a more ______ posture.

A

Inscreased, upright.

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9
Q

How does stride frequency relate to speed?

A

Direct relationship –
As one increases so does the other.

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10
Q

Describe four key energy-efficient mechanisms adapted by mammals

A
  1. Less angle in limbs = less muscular energy = better mechanical advantage
  2. Decrease in muscle mass as you go down the leg (less energy to feed excess muscle)
  3. Elongated limb segments (as opposed to tons of muscle – take advantage of inertia, elastic, “free” energy)
  4. Spring and elastic energy mechanisms (ex. loading tendons)
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11
Q

Skeletal form is a template for what?

A

Physiological function

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12
Q

How many cervical vertebrate do mammals have? What are the two exceptions to this?

A

7.
Sloths and manatees.

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13
Q

Mammalian skeletons are highly conserved. What can be a skeletal indicator of a larger body size?

A
  1. Thicker bones (bone must withstand the greater force of more weight)
  2. Increased limb angles (small mammals, like a rodent, likely have smaller limb angles than an elephant)
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14
Q

Cursorial means what?
What do cursorial organisms need to resist?

A

Land dwelling, move with legs
Resist ground forces and forces from the muscles.

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15
Q

Plantigrade

A

Calcaneous flat on ground.
Cursorial

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16
Q

Digitigrade

A

Calcaneous off ground
Cursorial

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17
Q

Unguligrade

A

Calcaneous off ground - fully reduced digits, walking on a finger (hoof)
Cursorial

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18
Q

What are three of the biggest factors that increase speed?

A
  1. Longer limbs (ex. ungulates)
  2. higher stride lengths
  3. Higher stride frequencies
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19
Q

What is the cost:benefit of reduction of digits?

A

Sacrifices stability/securement strategies for speed.

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20
Q

What is the name of the game for ungulates?

A

Speed.

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21
Q

Walking

A

One foot always in contact with the ground

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22
Q

Ballistic phase

A

Involves aerial movement (no feet on ground)

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23
Q

Rotary gallop

A

One foot in contact with the ground at one time.

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24
Q

Swing speed

A

Ability to place legs in time for the next part of the motion

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25
Swing speed is a primary correlate of _____ run times.
Faster.
26
What is the tradeoff of minimizing the amount of foot hitting the ground?
More forces will be exerted on that foot. (Ungulates)
27
What is the tradeoff of longer legs?
Better torque : more inertia/harder to accelerate
28
Does it cost more energy for large animals to go faster compared to small animals?
No! Larger mammals at faster speeds can take advantage of locomotion strategies like elastic energy. Smaller mammals must apply necessary ground reaction forces more quickly (smaller - must move quickly due to swing speed)
29
T/F: Faster animals use more economically efficient energy going fast than going slow.
True! Hard to overcome inertia to get moving, easy for it to stay going once its going
30
What are locomotive trends seen in smaller mammals with regard to energy usage?
They utilize MORE energy for movement. - Lower "savings" from elastic energy - Sharter legs cause increased stride frequency (speeds up swing speed) - Increased muscle activation and energy usage Coupled with high metabolism, smaller mammals are at energetic dysfunction when moving.
31
Fossorial mammals have what adaptations?
Changes to forelimbs to burrow effectively - Large claws - Short, broad forelimbs, splayed - Huge moment arms - More vibrissae
32
Arboreal/scansorial mammals have what adaptations?
Modified appendages for balance - Claws (when body is small compared to substrate) - Prehensile (grasping) tails, hands, feet (nails, friction pads) - Suspensory (long, curved digits, fusion of cervical vertebrae) - Joint flexibility
33
Brachiation adaptations
- Shorter spine - flexible shoulder and wrists - Energetically efficient
34
How does the maneuverability of bat wings compare to bird wings?
They are much more malleable since they can "close" their hand still
35
What is gliding characterized by?
Patagium (membrane)
36
How is energetic cost different between flying and gliding?
Flight is extremely costly, gliding costs almost nothing (velocity required by gravity)
37
What are the four times flight has evolved in animal life?
1. Insects 2. Pterosaurs 3. Birds 4. Bats
38
Can bats fly in the rain?
No
39
What is the least energetically costly form of mammalian locomotion? Why?
Swimming - buoyancy counteracts gravity (free energy, yay) (If adapted to this environment)
40
Adaptations of semi-aquatic mammals
- Thick fur - Webbed feet - Flattened tail
41
Adaptations for aquatic (most of time in water) mammals
- Limbs modified into flippers for propulsion - Blubber (thick SQ fat) - Almost no externally visible tail
42
Adaptations for marine (fully aquatic) mammals
- Fusion of cervical vertebrae - Forelimbs modified into flippers for stability - Elimination of hindlimbs and most of pelvic girdle - Tail flattened dorso-ventrally into a fluke for propulsion - Blubber (thick SQ fat)
43
Fish swim using lateral undulation, mammals use ______ undulation
Vertical (use spine more)
44
How do the three different pinnipeds swim?
Phocids (true seals): back muscles/flippers (E efficient, dive deeper and longer) Otariids (sea lions and fur seals): front flippers (active, maneuverable, shallow divers, less time underwater) Leopard seals: True seal... but acts like a hybrid of both
45
Phocid
True seal
46
Otariid
Seal lions and fur seals
47
If an organism is partially adapted to aquatic life, would their energetic cost be greater than or less than an organism fully adapted to aquatic life?
Greater than.
48
Why are bigger animals more energetically efficient?
Smaller animals are already set at a higher metabolic rate. Smaller mammals have a higher SA:V ratio (lose more heat, etc. -> higher baseline) Bigger animals have more tissue to power, but have better strategies to minimize heat loss and maximize energy
49
What is energy from food used for?
1. Maintenance of homeostasis 2. Reproduction 3. Gas exchange 4. Locomotion
50
Herbivores
Eat autotrophs
51
Carnivores
Eat other animals
52
Omnivores
Eat animals and plants/algae
53
Four classes of essential nutrients
1. Amino acids (DNA and genes, proteins) 2. Fatty acids (E, cell signaling, hormonally, thermoregulation) 3. Vitamins 4. Minerals Carbohydrates technically not included because we can synthesize glucose in other ways.
54
Are carbohydrates essential nutrients to mammals?
No. They can be used in various ways but are not essential.
55
Complete proteins
Provide all essential amino acids "Essential" --> we can not synthesize it on our own
56
Undernourishment
Result of a diet consistently supplying less chemical energy than the body requires
57
Malnourishment
Long-term absence of one or more essential nutrient from the diet
58
What happens when an animal is undernourished?
- Use stored fat and carbs (fats used first, want to store carbs since it is the only thing brain can eat) - Break down own proteins - Lose muscle mass - Suffer protein deficiency of the brain - Die or suffer irreversible damage
59
What are the four stages of food processing?
1. Ingestion 2. Digestion 3. Absorption 4. Elimination
60
Ingestion
Mechanical digestion --> break into smaller molecules --> higher SA:V --> extract more nutrients
61
Digestion
Further breakdown into molecules small enough to absorb
62
Absorption
Uptake of nutrients into cells
63
Elimination
Passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment
64
What starts break down of proteins? Where?
Pepsin, stomach.
65
What starts break down of carbohydrates? Where?
Salivary amylase, mouth.
66
What breaks down fats? Where?
Emulsification by bile salts released from gallbladder, end of stomach.
67
What is unique about the breakdown/use of fatty acids?
Requires intricate breakdown through beta oxidation. Provides the most energy! At least 106 ATP/molecule.
68
What is the advantage of carbohydrates?
Fast energy access/breakdown! But less energy... 36 ATP aerobically 4 ATP anaerobically

BZ 214: Vertebrates (28 decks)

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