Existence of sex role stereotypes
Seavey et al 1975
Male and females asked to interact with a baby when it was introduced as either boy, girl or baby. They found participant behaviour changed depending on how it was introduced.
-Girl caused them to play with a doll
-Boy made them play with a ring
-Baby meant they decided the sex of the baby due to its characteristics like strength
Androgyny
Bems sex role inventory 1974
Males and females rated words as either feminine, masculine or neutral and then over 700 people took the quiz and 4 categories were found in how people scored: feminine, masculine, androgynous (high both) or undifferentiated (low both). She concluded femininity and masculinity is not opposite poles and participants description of their own gender matched results
Research against Bem sex role inventory
Hoffman 2001
Only 2 terms were still relvant to just males or females espicailly irrelvent to younger age groups. Showing it did not have temporal validity
Testosterone
Nanne van der poll
Female rats become more sexually and physically aggressive when injected with testosterone
Oestrogen
Van goozen 1995
Transgender women undergoing hormone treatment are injected with oestrogen and they showed a decrease in aggression and visuospatial skills
Oxytocin
Van leengoed 1987
Injected rats after childbirth with an oxytocin antagonist and the mothers showed a delay in maternal behaviours like grooming. Normal behaviours resumed when the antagonist wore off
Supporting Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory
Thompson
76% of 2 year olds showed gender identity compared to 90% of 3 year olds suggesting gender identity has a developmental nature. By 2 they could identify their same sex gender people in photos and self label their own gender, supporting the stages
Munroe 1984
Cultural support suggesting universal stages
Who did the gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson 1981
Supporting the gender schema theory
Brandbard 1986
Children are more likely to lay with and remember new toys which were described as being for their own gender . Shows children have bias for in group activities in their gender schema
Social learning explanation of gender support and opposition
Rubin 1974
Fathers used different words to describe daughters and sons. Daughters = soft, beautiful Sons= strong and firm
Parents reactions reinforce gender typical traits, reinforcing them
Smith and Daglish 1977
No correlation between stereotypical gender views of parents and gender typical behaviour in 1-2 year olds
Social learning theory media effect
Williams 1986
2 year natural experiment looking at effects of Tv and introducing it. She found at the start gender stereotyping was more prevalent in the town with TV but by the end the town which had TV introduced had become extremely similar in gender stereotyping
Social learning theory culture effects
Mead 1935
Looked at 3 different tribes in the same area and found each tribe was different to western culture and to each other. This showed gender roles are culture dependent and are caused by environment not biology
Support for psychodynamic theory
Little Hans Oedipus complex, castration anxiety
Biological explanations for gender identity disorder
Ning Zholl 1995
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is normally 40% bigger in males. But looing at 6 male to female transgender individuals the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis was closer in size to the average females
Genetic explanation of gender identity disorder
Heylens 2012
23 MZ twins and 21 DZ twins where one of each pair had GID. There was a 39% concordance rate in MZ twins and no concordance in DZ twins
Who did the psychoanalytical explanation of gender identity disorder
Ovesey and person 1973
Supporting the psychoanalytical explanation for gender identity
Stoller 1973
GID males seemed overly close to their mothers when interviewed that could lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity long term
Supporting the cognitive social explanation for gender identity disorder
Zach Avery insisted he was female
He became obsessed with Dora the explorer a show aimed at young girls which may have led to development of non sex typed schema which could have led to this gender identity confusion. He showed the second personal pathway