Anatomical planes
Median -> Right & left
Sagittal - parallel to median plane
Frontal (coronal) -> Anterior & posterior
Transverse -> superior and inferior
Anatomical position
Head and toes directed anteriorly (forward)
Arms on the side & facing anteriorly
Lower limbs close together & feet parallel
Terms of Relationship & comparison
Superior - Inferior
Anterior - Posterior
Medial - Lateral
Dorsal (hand or foot down) - Palmer (hand up)/ Plantar (soles of feet up)
Superficial (on top) - Intermediate (in the middle) - Deep (inside)
External - Internal
Proximal - Distal
Terms of Laterality
Bilateral (two sides) - Unilateral (one side)
Ipsilateral (same side of the body) - Contralateral (opposite side of the body)
Terms of Movements
Flexion - Extension
Dorsiflexion (decreases the angle btwn foot and leg)(down) - Plantarflexion (increases the angle btwn foot and leg)(up)
Eversion (away from median) - Inversion (into median)
Abduction (away from body) - Adduction (closer to body)
Circumduction (move a limb in circular motion)
Rotation
Pronation (palm back) - Supination (palm front)
Opposition (grasping the thumb and fingers) - Reposition (releasing the thumb and fingers)
Protrusion (above the plane surface) - Retrusion (under the plane surface)
Elevation (shoulders up) - Depression (shoulders down)
Integumentary System - Epidermis
Superficial layer (tough) Basal Layer (regenerative & pigmented) No Blood vessels or nerve endings
Integumentary system - Dermis
Collagen & elastic fibers
Hair follicles, smooth arrector muscles, and sebaceous glands
Blood vessels & cutaneous nerve terminals
Integumentary system - Subcutaeous tissue (superficial fascia)
Loose connective tissue & stored fat
Sweat glands
Superficial blood vessels & cutaneous nerves
Integumentary system - Deep fascia
Dense connective tissue, devoid of fat
Covers & invest deep structures
Integumentary system - Skin Ligaments
Fibrous bands, attach dermis to deep fascia
Integumentary system - Fascia
wrap, pack, and compartmentalize deep structures of the body
- Fascial compartments
- Integumentary septae
- Retinaculum (thick band in wrist)
- Subserous fascia (between internal musculoskeletal walls and serous membranes)
- Endothoracic (in the lungs)
- Extraperitoneal (in the abdomen)
Integumentary system - Bursae
closed sacs of serous membrane, occuring in places subject to friction
- serous membrane - delicate connective tissue that secretes fluid to lubricate smooth surfaces
- subcutaneous bursae - between skin and bony prominences (e.g. elbow)
- subtendinous bursae - between tendon and bone (e.g. at the glenohumeral joint)
- bursae sacs surround organs (e.g. heart, lunds, abdominal viscera)
- visceral layer
- Parietal layer
Skeletal System - Division
Axial - head, neck, & trunk
Appendicular - limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles
Skeletal system - Composition
Cartilage: semi-rigid connective tissue, present at flexible spots
Bone: hard connective tissue, involved in
- Body support & movement
- Organ protection
- Salt strorage (e.g. Ca)
- Blood cells production
Skeletal system - Bone markings
Condyle: rounded, articular area Crest: ridge of bone Foramen: passage through a bone Fossa: hollow or depressed area Groove: elongated depression or furrow Notch: identation at the end of the bone Protuberance: projection of bone Spine: thorn-like process Spinous process: projecting spine-like part of a bone Tubercle: small raised eminence Tuberosity: larde rounded elevation
Skeletal system - Joint Types (manner or material uniting bone)
Synovial: united by joint capsule (e.g. knee, TMJ)
Fibrous: united by fibrous tissue
- Sutures of cranium (united by short ligaments)
- Syndesmosis (united by sheet of fibrous tissue)
Interoseous memebrane of forearm
Dentoalveolar syndesmosis
Cartilaginous: united by fibrocartilage (e.g. intervertebral disks)
Skeletal system - synovial joints
Involved in locomotion
Reinforced by accessory ligaments
Extrinsic separate from joint capsule
Intrinsic - thicking of joint capsule
Skeletal system - Synovial joint types
plane - gliding or sliding movements in the plane of the articular surface (acromioclavicular)
hinge - flexion & extension only (elbow). Uniaxial
saddle - abduction and adduction and flexion & extension (carpometacarpal). Less frontal
Condyloid - abduction and adduction and flexion & movement than saddle joints. Biaxial
ball & socket - flexion & extension, abduction & adduction, medial & lateral rotation, and circumduction (hip). Multi-axial
pivot - rotation aroud central axis (median atlantoaxial). Uniaxial
Clinical correlation:
osteoarthiritis: degenerative joint disease, usually of the joints supporting body wieght (his & knees)
arthroscopy: examinations of synovial joints through insertion of an arthroscope
Muscular system - muscle systems
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
clinical correlation
hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle: increased fiber size in response to increased demand
hypertrophy of smooth muscle: increased fiber size and number (e.g. uterine wall during pregnancy)
Muscular system - Muscles naming
Function: abductor digiti minimi
Bones to which attack: SCM
Position: medial, lateral, anterior, posterior
Length: brevis (short), longus (long)
Shape
Flat: parallel fibers (e.g, external oblique)
pennate: feather-like (e.g. deltoid)
fusiform: round, thick belly and tapered ends (e.g. biceps brachii)
convergent: from broad area to form a single tendon (e.g. pectoralis major)
quadrate: 4 equal sides (e.g. rectus abdominis)
circular or sphincteral: surround body opening or orifice (e.g. orbicularis oculi)
multi-headed or multi-bellied: more than one attachment and more than one belly (e.g. biceps & triceps brachii; digastric)
Clinical correlation:
Muscle testing
examiner and patient make movements to counteract each other
electromyography (EMG): electrical stimulation and recording of muscle tone
Circulatory system - Cardiovascular system (CVS)
Vascular circuits of the CVS
Pulmonary from RIGHT ventricle to LEFT atrium
systemic: from LEFT ventricle to RIGHT atrium
parallel circuits supplying the body
Circulatory system - CVS - Blood vessels
Arteries (aa): carry blood under relatively high pressure form the heart to the rest of the body
Large elastic aa: recieve cardiac output, minimizing the ebb in BP as the heart contacts and relaxes
Medium muscular aa: regulate blood flow to different parts of the body as needed (e.g. activity, thermoregulation). Most named a. are medium a.
Small aa. & arterioles: regulate level of arterial pressure. No names and normally no identified during dissections.
Veins (vv.): return blood to the heart
Venules: drain capillary beds & form small vv.
Small vv.: tributaries(drain into) of larger vv. that unite to form venous plexuses.
Medium vv.: drain venous plexuses and accompany medium aa. Contain venous valves, preventing blood backflow
Large vv: return blood to the heart (e.g. superior vena cava)
Anastomoses: communications between multiple branches of an a. Prevent the occlusion of one branch affect the supplied tissue, providing collateral circulation.
Circulatory system - CVS - Anastomoses
communications between multiple branches of an a. Prevent the occlusion of one branch affect the supplied tissue, providing collateral circulation
Circulatory system - CVS - True terminal aa.
aa. lacking anastomoses (communications) with adjacent aa. Example blood supply to retina, where occlusion leads to blindness
Circulatory system - CVS - capillaries & capillary beds
capillaries are endothelial tubes connecting arterial and venous sides and are typically arranged in capillary beds, which are networks connecting arterial and venous sides. Capillaries allow the exchange of materials with the ECF.
Circulatory system - CVS - portal venous system
a venous system connecting 2 capillary beds. Example: hepatic portal system (capillary bed of alimentary tract and capillary bed of liver or sinusoids)
Clinical correlation:
Arteriosclerosis: hardening of the aa., typically through the buildup of fat or Ca deposite
Varicose veins: abnormally swollen vv., typically product of weakening of vv. (loosening of wall elasticity)
Nervous system (NS)
receive and integrates internal and external stimuli
controls and regulates various activites in the body
allows the body to adapt to continous internal and external changes
NS - structural division
central nervous system (CNS): brain & spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS): NS outside the CNS
NS - functional division
somatic nervous system (PNS)
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
NS - components
Neurons (nerve cells): composed of cell body, dendrites, and axons. Specialized for rapid conduction of information.
Multipolar motor neurons: consist of dendritic tree and single axon, with one or more branches. E.g. neurons controlling skeletal muscle and the ANS.
Psuedounipolar sensory neurons: derived from the cell body a single process divides into a peripheral and central processes. Peripheral (receptor organ -> cell body), central (cell body -> CNS). These neurons’ cell bodies are located in sensory ganglia in the PNS.
Neuroglia (glial cells or glia): support, insulate, and nourish neurons. 5 times more abundant than neurons, non conductive?
NS - CNS & components
comprised of the brain & spinal cord
integrates and processes neural signals to perform higher mental functions (thinking, learning and memory)
components:
nucleus: collection of cell bodies in the CNS
tract: bundle of nerve fibers (axons) in the CNS
Gray matter: formed by the cell bodies
white matter: formed by interconnecting fiber tracts (axons)
meninges: pia, arachnoid, and dura mater
NS - PNS & components
comprised of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS
components:
Nerve:
Bundle of nerve fibers or bundle or bundled fibers (fascicle)
Connective tissue surrounding and binding nerver fibers or bundles together
Vasa nervorum: blood vessels nourishing the nerve and its covering
Ganglion: collection of cell bodies outside the CNS
NS - PNS - types of nerves
Cranial: exit cranial cavity through foramina in pairs. Identified by Roman numeral or descriptive name (eg. CN IV or trochlear nerve)
Spinal: exit vertebral column through intervertebral foramina in pairs. Identified by a letter and number (eg. T4), designating the region of the spinal cord and superior-to-inferior order
Nervous system - Spinal nerves & components
Anterior and posterior rootlets -> anterior and posterior nerve roots -> spinal nerve (contains the anterior and posterior rami)
Components:
Anterior nerve root: motor (efferent) fibers from CNS to peripheral organs
Posterior nerve root: sensory (afferent) fibers coming from peripheral receptors and extending centrally to the CNS
Anterior primary rami: supply the anterior and lateral areas of the trunk and upper & lower limbs.
In the trunk, generally inervate musdles and skin in a segmental pattern.
In the limbs, nerves merge to form plexuses
Posterior primary rami: supply synovial joint of vertebral column, deep muscles of back, and skin in a segmental pattern. DO NOT form plexuses.
Dermatone: area of skin innervated by sensory fibers of a single spinal nerve
Myotome: muscle mass innervated by a single spinal nerve
NS - types of fibers in cranial and spinal nerves
Somatic fibers
General sensory fibers (general somatic afferent (GSA) fibers): transmit sensations from body to CNS
General motor fibers (general somatic efferent (GSE) fibers): transmit impulses to skeletal muscles
Visceral fibers
Visceral sensory fibers (general visceral afferent (GVA) fibers): transmit sensation from organs & blood vessels to CNS
Visceral motor fibers (general visceral efferent (GVE) fibers): transmit impulses to smooth muscles and glandular tissue
NS - Somatic Nervous system (SNS)
Composed of somatic parts of the CNS and PNS
Provides sensory and motor innervation to the whole body, except for body cavities, smooth muscle, and glandular tissue
NS - Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Composed of motor and sensory fibers
Transmission of information between CNS and target is mediated by two neurons
Presynaptic (preganglionic) neuron: located in gray matter of CNS, and synapses onto the postsynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic (postganglionic) neurons: located outside CNS in autonomic ganglia, and synapses on effector organ
Divisions:
Sympathetic (thoracolumbar)
Parasympathetic (craiosacral)
Differ in:
Location of presynaptic cell bodies, and size of pre and postsynaptic neurons
Neurotransmitters at target sites: SP = NE, PSP = ACh
NS - sympathetic nervous system
Presynaptic cell bodies: located in the intermediolateral cell columns (IMLs) of the spinal cord. Relatively short compared to postsynaptic neurons.
Postsynaptic cell bodies: located in
Paravertebral ganglia: linked to form R & L sympathetic trunks on each side of the vertebral column, and extenc the length of it
Prevertebral ganglia: in the plexuses surrounding the origins of the main branches of the abdominal aorta
White rami communicantes: passage of axons of presynaptic neurons from the anterior rami of spinal nerves to the sympathetic trunk
Gray rami communicantes: passage of axons of the postsynaptic neurons from the paravertebral ganglia to anterior rami of spinal nerves
NS - Parasympathetic nervous system
Presynaptic cell bodies: located in
In the gray matter of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
In the white matter of sacral segments S2-4
NS - Visceral sensation
Usually at the unconscious level
Provide information regarding the body’s internal environment
Integration of this information by the CNS, triggers visceral or somatic reflexes
Visceral sensation at a conscious level is usually perceived as poorly localized pain