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Research - Semester 1 > HEAL116 > Flashcards

HEAL116 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a type one error

A

Falsely rejecting the null hypothesis

False positive i.e. the excepted P value is too high, and sample sizes too small although it was a biased design

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2
Q

What is a Type II error

A

Falsely accepting the null hypothesis

False negative i.e. the sample size was too small

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3
Q

How to reduce the risk of a type one or Type II error

A

Perform a power calculation

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4
Q

What is evidence based practice

A

Using the patience values and preferences, using clinical expertise and the best external evidence to make treatment decisions

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5
Q

What is informed consent

A

Voluntary and informed agreement made by somebody with mental capacity

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6
Q

What is mental capacity

A

The ability of the patient to make their own decisions upon their own care

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7
Q

What are the seven ethical principles

A

Nonmaleficence – do no harm

Benificence– provide benefit

Justice – equal opportunity for all

Autonomy – patients view is the right to choose

Health maximisation

Efficiency – using evidence based practice to find the best cost to benefit ratio

Proportionality – weighing individual and social benefit

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8
Q

What must be approved before research can be conducted

A

And ethical review panel

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9
Q

What is research

A

Systematic investigation of materials and sources to establish new facts and reaching conclusions

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10
Q

As well as establishing new facts, what must be discovered?

A

If they are true

In what context they are true

When and where and what context they are not true

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11
Q

Why is research important

A

Allows delivery of consistently high-quality care withleast clinical variability. It allows us to progress human understanding

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12
Q

What is the hierarchy of evidence

A

Single observational studies – k-series, case-control, cohort studies

Single randomised controlled trials

Reviews of literature

Systematic review

Cochrane review

National or international guidelines

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13
Q

What is inference

A

Establishing how are steady applies to your population

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14
Q

What is correlation

A

Quantification of the association between two variables, measured using a correlation coefficient

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15
Q

What is a significance test

A

Identifying a P value, to accept or reject the null hypothesis

Reflects the likelihood that random error is causing the results

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16
Q

What is parametric data

A

Normally distributed, ratio interval data, where the subjects are randomly selected, and the variance is similar between the groups

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17
Q

Why is parametric data useful

A

Allows us to use specific parametric test which give a more precise analysis they are more powerful and more sensitive

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18
Q

What is non-parametric data

A

Applies to any data that is not parametric, including skewed numerical data

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19
Q

what is PICOT?

A

Population, intervention, control, outcome, time

Should be included in every research question

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20
Q

What are the three types of categorical data

A

Binary, nominal, ordinal

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21
Q

What is binary data

A

Categorical data containing two groups

Yes/no

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22
Q

What is nominal data

A

Categorical data with no order to grouping

Blood-group or bus number

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23
Q

What is ordinal data

A

Categorical data with the order to the grouping

For examples of satisfaction scale

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24
Q

What are the types of numerical data

A

Interval and ratio

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25
Q

What is interval data

A

Data that is evenly spaced, zero is arbitrary

E.g. temperature in degrees C – could be -10° C or +10° C

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26
Q

What is ratio data

A

Numerical data that is based regularly

Zero is absolute

E.g. height

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27
Q

How would you display categorical data

A

Pie charts or bar chart

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28
Q

How would you display numerical

A

In a frequency histogram to show normal distribution or skewed distribution

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29
Q

What is central tendency

A

Refers to averages, mean median mode

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30
Q

What is a measure of central tendency would be used in normal distributed data§

A

Mean

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31
Q

What measure of central tendency would be used in skewed data, and why?

A

Median would be used, as it ignores any outliers. It would also be used in categorical data

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32
Q

What is variance

A

The measure of spread of the data, e.g. range, IQR, standard deviation

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33
Q

When would you use interquartile range

A

to describe the variance of skew data, ignoring any outliers.

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34
Q

What is the standard deviation

A

The spread of data in relation to the mean

95% of the data lies within two standard deviation of the mean

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35
Q

Are UK principles of healthcare ethics based upon

A

The Geneva convention – implementation of humanitarian law

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36
Q

In terms of research, what is ethics

A

Being morally accountable

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37
Q

What are the two types of research

A

Quantitated research – using objective scientific methods to measure a phenomena construct or thing

Qualitative research – using subjective opinions to view multiple perspectives – e.g. interviews

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38
Q

What are the two types of quantitated research

A

Observational, experimental

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39
Q

What are the features of a randomised control trial

A

Case and control groups are randomly allocated and an intervention is given

40
Q

What are the features of a observational cohort study

A

No intervention is given – this is a natural comparison retrospectively. Individuals with a specific condition are tracked in time to see how the condition evolves

41
Q

What is a case series

A

Used in very rare conditions, looks at the signs and symptoms, diagnosis treatment and outcome

42
Q

What is going native

A

The researcher lives in the life of the subject e.g. tribes prison gangs

43
Q

What is going along

A

A mixture of going native and interviews

44
Q

What is a systematic review

A

A secondary research method

Looks at a very specific question

Explanatory not theoretical

summative

Reading research that has already been completed to summarise the results

45
Q

What is a meta analysis

A

Similar to a systematic review but adds quantitated data analysis, using a rerun from previous studies

Increases the sample size meaning increased statistical power and increased precision

More generalisable to the general population

46
Q

What is a research hypothesis

A

A prediction of results from the study

47
Q

What is the aim of the study

A

What do you are going to be looking for

48
Q

What is the objective of the research study

A

Propose steps to address the aim

49
Q

What is critical appraisal, and what tool would be used to look for this?

A

The critical appraisal skills program

A checklist to collect information about a paper, its validity and reliability, and generalisability - therefore its quality

50
Q

What are baseline demographics and why are they important?

A

The characteristics of the subjects, e.g. gender, age, conditions

It is important as it affects the external validity of the study

51
Q

What is the difference between a sample and the population

A

sample – the people in the study is being tested

The population – the people represented by the study

52
Q

What is a washout period

A

The time between the interventions crossover trial

53
Q

What is the carryover affect

A

When the washout period is not sufficient, and the effect from one intervention is seen in the next

54
Q

How is trustworthiness determined

A

By analysing the internal and external validity of the paper

55
Q

Name of the two overarching types of measurement error

A

Type one error – falsely rejecting the null hypothesis

Type II error - falsely accept the null hypothesis

56
Q

What is a random error

A

an error that cannot be prevented

Such as, change in motivation of the subject or equipment error

57
Q

What is it confounding

A

A variable that could affect the results, which is not the independent variable

58
Q

What are the two types of reliability

A

Inter-rater

intra-rater

59
Q

What are the two types of validity

A

Internal validity – the degree to which the study truly measures the contract

External validity – ability to apply the results to the rest of the population

60
Q

How would you describe a confidence interval

A

A measure of precision – how well the results would apply to the rest of the population

61
Q

What is consort

A

A guide for good reporting of randomise control trial is – making it easier for the reader and increasing transparency

62
Q

What is the dependent variable and the independent variable

A

Dependent variable – being tested – changes in relation to the independent variable

Independent variable – being changed or controlled – i.e. the treatment or the control

63
Q

What is random sampling

A

Anyone meeting the inclusion criteria has equal chance of entering

64
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

Anyone meeting the inclusion criteria are selected due to convenience

65
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

Split the data into strata and based on characteristics of equal numbers of people are selected in each group

66
Q

What is the cluster sampling

A

When subgroups of the population are selected

67
Q

What is it convenience sampling

A

A form of nonprobability sampling

Subjects are selected based on their ability and willingness

68
Q

What is quota sampling

A

Using convenience sampling up to a certain number of participants

69
Q

What is purposive sampling

A

Research and it decides who fits into what criteria

70
Q

What is snowball sampling

A

When one person is recruited and asked to find somebody like them to recruit

Used in small populations

71
Q

Why is randomisation used

A

To reduce the imbalance of characteristics which could affect the results

72
Q

How is clinical significance determined

A

Although statistically significant results can be clinical significance, it is up to the reader to decide

However if the results are not statistically significant they cannot be clinically significant

73
Q

What is an inference level

A

Ability to extrapolate the data from the study to apply it to the wider population

Depending on the sample size and selection criteria, to see if it will apply to the wider population

74
Q

What is the main determinant for an inference level

A

The confidence interval

75
Q

What factors affect confidence intervals

A

Sample size – margin sample, more confident

Data spread – smaller standard deviation, smaller spread, more confidence

76
Q

What happens if a confidence interval spreads zero

A

The results are not statistically significant

77
Q

What is simple randomisation

A

A third-party allocates groups by chance

78
Q

What is block randomisation

A

Participants are allocated into groups of equal sizes

79
Q

What is stratified randomisation

A

Balancing specific, predetermined criteria between groups

80
Q

What is it cluster randomisation

A

People from the same place – e.g. same GP, same postcode

81
Q

What is matching

A

Ensuring that the participants in the experimental and control are very similar in all variables with my affect the outcome of the study

82
Q

What is systematic bias

A

Consistent results based on how the data is collected – the error is the same every time

E.g. institution effect, fatigue, or the learning affect

83
Q

What is detection bias

A

The intervention was not blind, the internal validity is affected

84
Q

What is attrition bias

A

When participants withdraw from the study for reasons which are not documented

85
Q

What is face validity

A

The overall impression of the instrument appears to be producing an adequate reflection of the construct measured

86
Q

What is content validity

A

Does the instrument accurately represent the construct you want to measure – or is it measuring something else?

87
Q

Criterion validity

A

How well the instrumental performance compare to the gold standard

88
Q

What is the gold standard

A

The internationally recognised and accepted method of excellence for measuring a construct

89
Q

What is predictive validity

A

For example, using student entry grades as an overall prediction of degree classification. Likely to be an imperfection prediction as many other factors will also contribute – such as attendance rate, engagement in class, enthusiasm for the subject

90
Q

What is diagnostic validity

A

Looks at the sensitivity and specificity of the test

Sensitivity of the test – how well the test identifies the patient to have the disease

Specificity of the test the extent to which the test fails to identify those without the disease

91
Q

How to calculate the sensitivity of a test

A

True positive is divided by all positives

92
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect

A

An improvement in an individual’s performance due to being observed in the research setting and not because of the intervention

93
Q

What is the placebo affect

A

When the subject still shows improvement due to expectation, despite receiving the placebo

94
Q

What is the halo effect

A

When the researcher has some expectation about the performance of the subjects and exerts undue influence on the subject

95
Q

What is the researcher effect

A

Subjects can react to the study based on their relationship with the researcher

Especially if the defendant variable is emotional or psychological

96
Q

What is the multiple treatment effect

A

Given more than one intervention, then the results are unable to be generalised to the population where only one used

Research - Semester 1 (2 decks)

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