Hist 3100 Midterm Flashcards
(49 cards)
Tarquinius Superbus
Tarquinius Superbus, meaning “Tarquin the Proud,” was the seventh and final king of Rome, ruling from 535 to 509 BC. He came to power through treachery and violence, having overthrown his father-in-law, Servius Tullius, in a coup. Unlike his predecessors, who sought to maintain a delicate balance between monarchical power and the support of the Senate and people, Tarquinius ruled as a tyrant, refusing to seek counsel from the Senate and governing by fear. He expanded Rome’s influence militarily, notably subduing several Latin and Etruscan cities, but his arrogance and disregard for tradition alienated many Romans. His reign was marked by public works projects, including the completion of the Cloaca Maxima (Rome’s great sewer) and the expansion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. However, his authoritarian style of rule created widespread resentment, particularly among the Roman aristocracy.
The catalyst for his downfall was the infamous rape of Lucretia by his son, Sextus Tarquinius. Lucretia, the wife of a Roman noble, was assaulted by Sextus, leading her to take her own life out of shame. This event ignited a revolt led by Lucius Junius Brutus and other noble families, who expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC. This expulsion marked the end of the Roman monarchy and the birth of the Roman Republic, which rejected the idea of kingship entirely. Tarquinius attempted multiple times to regain power, seeking support from the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna and later from Latin allies, but Rome successfully resisted his efforts. His fall was a pivotal moment in Roman history, solidifying a deep-seated hatred of kingship that persisted throughout the Republic and even into the Empire, where the emperors carefully avoided using the title “king.”
Comitia Centuriata
The Comitia Centuriata was one of the primary voting assemblies of the Roman Republic, structured based on wealth rather than population. It was created during the early Republic as part of the reforms attributed to Servius Tullius, though it evolved significantly in later centuries. The assembly was divided into centuries, which were military units that initially corresponded to the number of soldiers Rome could field. These centuries were grouped into five classes based on wealth, with the wealthiest classes (including the equestrians and heavily armed hoplite-style infantry) being the smallest in number but holding the most votes. The lower classes, including the poorest citizens and those who could only afford minimal arms, had far fewer votes. This system ensured that Rome’s wealthiest and most influential citizens had the dominant political voice, as voting proceeded in order of wealth, and a majority could often be reached before the poorer centuries even voted.
The Comitia Centuriata was responsible for electing Rome’s highest magistrates, including the consuls, praetors, and censors. It also had the power to declare war and ratify treaties, giving it significant influence over foreign policy. Additionally, it functioned as a court of appeal in capital cases, meaning it could decide life-or-death matters for citizens. However, as Rome expanded and its political system evolved, the Comitia Centuriata’s influence waned in favor of the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Assembly) and the Senate, which became the primary decision-making body. The increasing reliance on professional soldiers rather than citizen militias also reduced the military significance of the centuries, leading to their diminished political power. Despite these changes, the Comitia Centuriata remained a key institution in Roman political life until the late Republic, when the rise of powerful generals and civil wars overshadowed its role.
Foedus Cassianum
The Foedus Cassianum was a treaty signed in 493 BC between Rome and the Latin League, a coalition of Latin city-states that had previously fought against Rome. The treaty was named after the Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus, who negotiated its terms. It established a mutual defense pact, stipulating that Rome and the Latin League would come to each other’s aid in case of foreign invasion, particularly against common enemies like the Aequi, Volsci, and Etruscans. The treaty also formalized military cooperation, stating that spoils of war would be shared equally between Rome and the Latins. This was an important moment in Rome’s early expansion, as it effectively secured Roman dominance over the Latins while presenting the relationship as an alliance rather than outright conquest.
Siege of Veii (406-396 BC)
The Siege of Veii was a crucial conflict in Rome’s early expansion, marking the first time Rome waged a prolonged, large-scale war against a neighboring power. Veii was a major Etruscan city located just 10 miles north of Rome, and for centuries it had been one of Rome’s principal rivals. The war between Rome and Veii lasted for ten years, making it the first recorded instance of Rome maintaining a standing army for an extended campaign. This was a significant departure from traditional Roman warfare, which typically consisted of seasonal campaigns where soldiers returned home to farm between battles. The protracted nature of the siege placed economic and social strain on Rome, but it also showcased the city’s growing military capabilities.
The siege ended in 396 BC, when the Roman general Marcus Furius Camillus led a successful assault on the city. According to legend, the Romans dug tunnels beneath Veii’s walls, allowing them to infiltrate the city and catch the defenders off guard. Camillus’ victory was followed by the complete sacking of Veii, with its population either slaughtered or sold into slavery. The city itself was annexed, and its land was distributed among Roman citizens, significantly increasing Rome’s territory. Veii’s destruction marked a turning point in Rome’s history, as it demonstrated the Republic’s ability to wage long-term wars and annex major enemy cities. However, just a few years later, Rome suffered a devastating invasion by the Gauls (390 BC), highlighting the fragile nature of its early expansion.
Battle of the Allia River (390 BC)
The Battle of the Allia River was one of the most infamous defeats in Roman history. It took place in 390 BC (or possibly 387 BC, according to some sources) and saw the Roman army annihilated by a Gallic force led by the chieftain Brennus. The Romans, vastly outnumbered and poorly coordinated, were caught off guard by the swift Gallic charge. The battle resulted in a total rout, with many Romans fleeing to Veii rather than attempting to defend their city. In the aftermath of the battle, Brennus and his forces marched on Rome, sacking the city in an event that left a deep psychological scar on Roman society.
The Gallic sack of Rome was a catastrophic event, with most of the city burned and looted. According to legend, the last holdouts took refuge on the Capitoline Hill, where they were alerted to a nocturnal Gallic assault by the honking of sacred geese at the Temple of Juno. Rome was ultimately ransomed, with the Gauls allegedly demanding 1,000 pounds of gold. When the Romans protested the use of rigged scales, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword on the weights, declaring “Vae victis” (Woe to the vanquished).” This humiliation fueled Roman resolve to never again let their city fall, leading to military reforms and fortification projects that would later secure their dominance over Italy.
Samnites
The Samnites were a powerful Italic people who lived in central and southern Italy, primarily in the rugged Apennine Mountains. They were known for their warrior culture, decentralized tribal organization, and resistance to Roman expansion. The Samnites were organized into a confederation of four major tribes and had a reputation for being ferocious fighters, particularly in mountainous terrain, where their hit-and-run tactics posed a major challenge to Roman legions. They were also well-regarded for their military innovation, particularly in the use of the “linen legion”, a heavily armored elite force. Their society was built around clan-based governance, and they frequently engaged in conflicts with neighboring peoples, including the Etruscans and Greek colonies in southern Italy.
The Samnites fought three major wars against Rome between 343 and 290 BC, collectively known as the Samnite Wars. Although they won several battles—most notably the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), where they humiliated a Roman army—their inability to unite with other Italian peoples ultimately led to their defeat. After Rome’s victory in the Third Samnite War (290 BC), the Samnites were subjugated, though they continued to resist Roman rule for decades. Their final rebellion came during the Social War (91-88 BC), when they fought alongside other Italian allies seeking Roman citizenship. After their eventual defeat, Rome pursued a brutal policy of mass executions and forced resettlement, effectively breaking the power of the Samnite people. By the time of Sulla’s dictatorship (82 BC), the Samnites had been nearly exterminated as a political and military force.
Samnite Wars (343-290 BC)
The Samnite Wars were a series of three wars between Rome and the Samnite Confederation, fought over control of central and southern Italy. The wars were pivotal in establishing Rome’s dominance over the Italian peninsula and refining its military strategies. The First Samnite War (343-341 BC) began due to Roman intervention in a conflict between the Samnites and the Campanians. Rome initially achieved victories, but internal conflicts with its Latin allies led to the Latin War (340-338 BC), shifting Rome’s focus away from Samnium. The war ended inconclusively, setting the stage for future conflicts.
The Second Samnite War (326-304 BC) was the most intense of the three. It saw Rome’s worst military humiliation at the Caudine Forks (321 BC), where an entire Roman army was forced to surrender without a fight and subjected to the disgrace of passing under the yoke. However, Rome adapted by restructuring its military organization, moving toward a more flexible and disciplined force, and ultimately gained the upper hand. The Third Samnite War (298-290 BC) culminated in the Battle of Sentinum (295 BC), where a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians was crushed by Rome. With this victory, Rome established control over nearly all of central Italy, and the Samnites were reduced to a secondary power. Though they continued to resist, their days as an independent force were numbered.
Settlement of 338 BCE
The Settlement of 338 BC was a major turning point in Rome’s relations with the Latin League following the Latin War (340-338 BC). The Latin League had long been a coalition of independent city-states allied with Rome, but as Rome grew in power, tensions emerged over its dominance. After Rome’s decisive victory over the Latins, the Republic dismantled the league and reorganized the region under Roman control. Instead of imposing outright conquest, Rome implemented a tiered system of citizenship, which became a key model for later Roman expansion.
Under the settlement, some Latin cities—like Tibur (Tivoli) and Praeneste—remained nominally independent but lost their military and political autonomy. Other cities were fully incorporated into Rome, granting their citizens full Roman citizenship. A third category of cities received “civitas sine suffragio”, meaning they had Roman legal protections but no voting rights. This strategy allowed Rome to integrate conquered peoples without provoking constant revolts, a tactic it would later use on a much larger scale. The settlement of 338 BC demonstrated Rome’s ability to expand its influence not just through conquest, but through diplomacy and selective enfranchisement.
Civitas Sine Suffragio
Civitas sine suffragio, or “citizenship without the vote,” was a legal status given to certain conquered peoples in the Roman Republic. This was an innovative compromise that allowed Rome to expand its influence while maintaining its own political stability. Those granted this status were Roman citizens in legal and economic matters, meaning they could own property, marry Romans, and appeal legal cases to Rome, but they were denied voting rights and the ability to hold public office. This system was first applied to many Latin and Italian communities after the Latin War (338 BC).
This status played a crucial role in Roman expansion because it allowed Rome to recruit soldiers from these newly incorporated territories while preventing them from fully participating in Roman politics. Over time, however, resentment grew among those with civitas sine suffragio, as they contributed to Rome’s military efforts but lacked a political voice. The Social War (91-88 BC) erupted largely because Italian allies sought full citizenship, demanding the same rights as native Romans. In the aftermath, Rome granted full citizenship to most of Italy, effectively ending the system of civitas sine suffragio and fully integrating Italy under Roman rule.
Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC)
The Battle of the Caudine Forks was one of the most humiliating defeats in Roman military history. It occurred during the Second Samnite War (326-304 BC), when a Roman army was trapped in a mountain pass by the Samnites. The Romans, led by the consuls Spurius Postumius and Titus Veturius, were advancing through the narrow Caudine Pass, believing it to be a safe route. However, they found themselves completely surrounded by the Samnite general Gaius Pontius, who had anticipated their movements. With no means of escape, the Romans were forced to surrender without a fight.
Rather than massacring the Roman army, the Samnites subjected them to a ritual humiliation. The entire Roman force was forced to “pass under the yoke”, a symbolic act where the soldiers had to walk bent over beneath spears, signifying their submission. This event deeply shocked Roman society, as surrender was considered unthinkable for a Roman army. Though the defeated consuls agreed to a peace treaty, the Senate later rejected it, arguing that an agreement made under duress was invalid. Rome continued the war, eventually recovering from the defeat and launching a more aggressive campaign against the Samnites. The humiliation at Caudine Forks ultimately strengthened Roman resolve and military discipline, contributing to their eventual victory in the Samnite Wars.
Manipular Legion
The manipular legion was the dominant Roman military formation during the Middle Republic, replacing the earlier phalanx-based system. The manipular system was more flexible and adaptable, particularly suited for Italy’s hilly and irregular terrain. Instead of fighting in a single rigid line, maniples (units of 120 men) were arranged in a checkerboard pattern, allowing for greater maneuverability. This system was likely adopted from the Samnites, whose loose formations had outperformed the Roman phalanx during the early Samnite Wars.
Each legion was divided into three main lines:
Hastati (front line) – Younger, less experienced soldiers.
Principes (middle line) – More experienced, better-armored troops.
Triarii (back line) – Veteran soldiers used as a last resort.
The manipular system was critical in Rome’s victories over the Samnites, Carthaginians, and Macedonians. However, by the late Republic, it was gradually replaced by the cohort system, which streamlined organization by grouping legions into ten larger units (cohorts) rather than smaller maniples. This transition helped Rome maintain greater discipline and logistical efficiency, particularly in large-scale campaigns beyond Italy.
Battle of Sentinum (295 BC)
The Battle of Sentinum was the decisive engagement of the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC), in which Rome faced a coalition of Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians. This battle was crucial because it marked the final major attempt by Rome’s enemies in central Italy to resist its dominance. The coalition, despite its numerical strength, was hindered by poor coordination and lack of unified leadership. The Roman army, commanded by the consuls Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus and Publius Decius Mus, took advantage of this weakness and launched a carefully planned assault.
During the battle, the Roman left flank was nearly overrun by Gallic chariots and infantry, forcing the consul Decius Mus to perform a devotio, a self-sacrificial ritual in which a general charges into enemy lines, calling upon the gods to ensure victory at the cost of his own life. This act inspired the Roman troops, allowing them to hold the line. Meanwhile, Fabius outmaneuvered the Samnites on the right flank, forcing them to retreat. With their allies collapsing, the Gauls and Etruscans also fled, resulting in a decisive Roman victory. This battle cemented Rome’s supremacy in central Italy, and within a few years, the Samnites were decisively subjugated, marking a significant step toward Roman control of the Italian peninsula.
Devotio
Devotio was an ancient Roman religious and military ritual in which a general would sacrifice himself in battle, offering his life to the gods in exchange for divine intervention to secure victory for Rome. This practice was rooted in the belief that a general’s death would appease the gods and bring about a miraculous turn of events in combat. The most famous examples of devotio come from the Decius Mus family, particularly Publius Decius Mus at the Battle of Sentinum (295 BC) and his father at an earlier battle.
When a devotio was performed, the general would recite a solemn prayer, dedicate himself to the gods of the underworld, and then charge alone into the enemy ranks, effectively ensuring his own death in battle. This act was not only a religious sacrifice but also served as an extraordinary morale booster for Roman soldiers, inspiring them to fight harder in honor of their fallen commander. Although devotio was not a common practice, it underscored the deeply religious and fatalistic nature of Roman warfare, where victory and divine favor were closely intertwined. The act symbolized the ultimate Roman virtue: putting the state before oneself.
Tarentum
Tarentum (modern Taranto) was a Greek city-state in southern Italy, founded by Spartan colonists in the 8th century BC. It was one of the most wealthy and influential cities in Magna Graecia, boasting a strong navy, vibrant economy, and rich cultural heritage. Tarentum often found itself caught between Roman and Italian politics, particularly as Rome expanded its influence in southern Italy. While many Greek cities in the region had formed treaties with Rome, Tarentum remained independent and hostile, seeing Rome as a threat to its autonomy.
In 282 BC, a Roman fleet entered the Gulf of Tarentum, violating a long-standing treaty that prohibited Roman ships from approaching its waters. Seeing this as an act of aggression, the Tarentines attacked and sank several Roman ships, triggering open conflict. Outmatched by Rome’s growing military strength, Tarentum sought aid from King Pyrrhus of Epirus, a Greek general who arrived in Italy with a formidable army, including war elephants. Pyrrhus won several battles against Rome, but at great cost (hence the term “Pyrrhic victory”). Eventually, Tarentum’s resistance collapsed, and Rome conquered the city in 272 BC. The fall of Tarentum marked the end of Greek independence in Italy and Rome’s complete dominance over the peninsula.
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus (319-272 BC) was a Hellenistic king of Epirus and one of antiquity’s greatest generals, often compared to Alexander the Great. He was known for his brilliant military tactics and use of war elephants, which he introduced to Roman battlefields for the first time. Pyrrhus arrived in Italy in 280 BC at the request of Tarentum, seeking to aid them in their war against Rome. He brought with him 25,000 troops, cavalry, and around 20 war elephants, hoping to expand his own influence while helping the Greeks resist Roman encroachment.
Pyrrhus won several major battles against the Romans, including the Battle of Heraclea (280 BC) and the Battle of Asculum (279 BC). However, these victories came at such immense cost in manpower that they were effectively hollow victories, leading to the term “Pyrrhic victory”, meaning a win that is so costly it is indistinguishable from a defeat. After a brief campaign in Sicily against the Carthaginians, Pyrrhus returned to Italy but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC). He withdrew from Italy and later died in a street fight in Argos in 272 BC. His campaigns demonstrated the resilience of the Roman military, as they continued fighting despite suffering severe defeats, highlighting the early strength of Roman manpower and adaptability.
Battle of Malventum (Beneventum, 275 BC)
The Battle of Malventum, later renamed Beneventum, was the final major battle between Pyrrhus of Epirus and Rome, marking the end of his Italian campaign. After suffering heavy losses in previous battles, Pyrrhus attempted one last offensive against the Romans, led by the consul Manius Curius Dentatus. The battle was fiercely contested, but the Romans had learned to counter Pyrrhus’ war elephants, using fire and missile volleys to disrupt their formations.
Pyrrhus’ forces suffered a decisive defeat, forcing him to abandon Italy and return to Epirus. This battle proved that Rome could hold its own against Hellenistic-style warfare, a significant milestone as it later faced other Greek kingdoms like Macedon and the Seleucid Empire. After the battle, the Romans renamed the city Beneventum (meaning “good event”) to commemorate their victory. With Pyrrhus gone, Rome quickly moved to subjugate Tarentum and the rest of Magna Graecia, consolidating its rule over all of Italy by 272 BC.
Carthage
Carthage was Rome’s greatest rival during the Republic, controlling a vast maritime empire based in North Africa. Founded by the Phoenicians around 814 BC, Carthage grew into a major naval power, dominating trade in the western Mediterranean. Its economy was based on commerce, agriculture, and tribute from its colonies, stretching from Spain to Sicily. Carthage had a powerful navy but relied on mercenaries for much of its land-based military, in contrast to Rome’s citizen-soldier model.
The Punic Wars (264-146 BC) defined Rome’s struggle against Carthage. The First Punic War (264-241 BC) was fought over control of Sicily, and though Rome was initially inexperienced in naval warfare, it adapted quickly, eventually defeating Carthage at the Battle of the Aegates Islands. The Second Punic War (218-201 BC) was even more devastating, featuring Hannibal’s legendary campaign in Italy. Despite crushing victories at Trebia, Trasimene, and Cannae, Hannibal failed to force Rome’s surrender and was eventually defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama (202 BC). The Third Punic War (149-146 BC) ended with Carthage’s total destruction, as Roman forces razed the city, enslaved its population, and declared the land cursed. Carthage’s downfall paved the way for Roman dominance over the Mediterranean.
First Punic War (264-241 BC)
The First Punic War was the first major conflict between Rome and Carthage, fought primarily over control of Sicily. Before the war, Carthage had a stronghold in western Sicily, particularly in Palermo (Panormus) and Lilybaeum, while Rome had influence in southern Italy. The war began when the Mamertines, a group of Italian mercenaries, requested help from both Rome and Carthage to defend the city of Messana against the Greek city of Syracuse. Rome’s intervention escalated into a full-scale war with Carthage, as both powers sought dominance in Sicily.
Since Carthage had superior naval power, Rome had to rapidly build a fleet from scratch. The Romans copied a Carthaginian ship design and introduced the corvus, a boarding bridge that allowed Roman soldiers to fight in naval battles like land combat. This innovation led to victories at Mylae (260 BC) and Ecnomus (256 BC), among the largest naval battles in history. However, Rome suffered severe naval losses due to storms, and the war dragged on for over 20 years. The final turning point came in 241 BC, when Rome, under Gaius Lutatius Catulus, defeated the Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of the Aegates Islands, forcing Carthage to sue for peace. Carthage had to surrender Sicily and pay massive war reparations, marking Rome’s first expansion beyond the Italian mainland.
Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
The Second Punic War was one of the most dramatic conflicts in ancient history, featuring Hannibal’s legendary campaign against Rome. The war began when Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, attacked the Roman-allied city of Saguntum in Spain. Rome demanded his surrender, and when Carthage refused, war was declared. Hannibal then led one of the most daring military campaigns in history, marching an army—including war elephants—over the Alps into Italy, catching Rome completely by surprise.
Hannibal inflicted devastating defeats on Rome, most notably at:
Trebia (218 BC) – Hannibal ambushed and annihilated a Roman force.
Lake Trasimene (217 BC) – The largest ambush in military history, where a Roman army was surrounded and slaughtered.
Cannae (216 BC) – Hannibal’s most famous victory, where he used a double envelopment strategy to annihilate over 50,000 Romans in a single day.
Despite these victories, Hannibal failed to take Rome itself due to lack of reinforcements from Carthage. Rome adapted by avoiding direct battles and instead waging a war of attrition, led by Quintus Fabius Maximus (the “Cunctator,” or “Delayer”). In 204 BC, the Roman general Scipio Africanus took the war to North Africa, forcing Hannibal to return home. The war ended in 202 BC at the Battle of Zama, where Scipio decisively defeated Hannibal, forcing Carthage to surrender, disband its military, and pay massive reparations.
Hannibal
Hannibal Barca (247-183 BC) was one of the greatest military commanders in history, famous for his bold tactics and his overland invasion of Italy. The son of Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal was raised to hate Rome and swore an oath as a child to destroy it. As general of Carthage’s army in Spain, he sparked the Second Punic War by attacking Saguntum in 218 BC, provoking a Roman response.
Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps was an incredible military achievement. Despite harsh winter conditions, avalanches, and attacks from hostile tribes, he brought his army—including war elephants—into Italy. His tactical genius was best displayed at Cannae (216 BC), where he surrounded and annihilated an army twice the size of his own. However, despite winning many battles, he could not conquer Rome itself, as he lacked siege equipment and reinforcements. After his defeat at Zama (202 BC), he went into exile and later served as a military advisor to the Seleucid Empire, continuing to fight against Rome until his death in 183 BC.
Battle of Cannae (216 BC)
The Battle of Cannae was Hannibal’s greatest victory and one of the bloodiest battles in history. Rome, seeking to finally crush Hannibal, assembled an army of over 80,000 men, led by the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. Hannibal, with a smaller force of about 50,000, positioned his troops in a crescent formation, placing his weaker infantry in the center and his strongest troops—including Carthaginian cavalry—on the flanks.
As the battle began, the Romans, confident in their superior numbers, charged straight into the Carthaginian center, which gradually retreated, forming a concave shape. This was a deliberate trap—Hannibal’s elite African infantry on the flanks then closed in, surrounding the Romans completely. Meanwhile, his Numidian cavalry routed the Roman cavalry, leaving the infantry trapped with no escape. The result was a massacre—estimates suggest that 50,000 to 70,000 Romans were killed in a single day, while Hannibal lost only a few thousand troops. This battle remains one of the greatest tactical victories in military history.
Battle of Zama (202 BC)
The Battle of Zama was the final confrontation of the Second Punic War, in which Scipio Africanus decisively defeated Hannibal in North Africa. After years of campaigning in Italy, Hannibal was recalled to defend Carthage. Scipio, having studied Hannibal’s tactics, developed a counterstrategy to neutralize his war elephants. He arranged his troops in gaps, allowing the elephants to charge through harmlessly, where they were then slaughtered from the sides.
The battle turned when Scipio’s cavalry, led by Masinissa (a Numidian ally), attacked Hannibal’s rear, causing a total rout of the Carthaginian army. Carthage was forced to surrender, agreeing to dismantle its military, pay Rome massive indemnities, and submit to Roman oversight in foreign affairs. The defeat at Zama ended Carthage as a major power and marked Rome’s uncontested dominance in the western Mediterranean.
Ager Publicus
Ager Publicus was public land owned by the Roman state, often acquired through military conquest. Originally, this land was distributed to Roman citizens, but over time, much of it was seized by wealthy elites and senators, leading to the rise of latifundia (large slave-run estates). The concentration of land in elite hands caused social unrest, as small farmers were often displaced and forced into the cities.
In the 2nd century BC, reformers like Tiberius Gracchus attempted to redistribute ager publicus to the poor. However, his efforts met fierce resistance from the Senate, leading to his assassination. The unequal distribution of land exacerbated social tensions and contributed to the decline of the Republic, as dispossessed farmers flocked to Rome, fueling populist movements.
Numantia
Numantia was a Celtiberian city in Spain that became a symbol of resistance against Rome. From 153-133 BC, the Numantines successfully defied Roman forces, using guerilla tactics and superior knowledge of the terrain. Despite being outnumbered, they inflicted severe defeats on Roman armies.
In 133 BC, Rome sent Scipio Aemilianus to crush Numantia. After a brutal siege, where the inhabitants resorted to cannibalism and mass suicide rather than surrender, the city was finally destroyed. The fall of Numantia marked the end of major resistance in Spain, solidifying Roman control over the Iberian Peninsula.
