Definition of 1st I.E:
Definition of 2nd I.E:
1st I.E: The energy required to remove 1 mole of e⁻ from 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous 1⁺ ions.
2nd I.E: The energy required to remove 1 mole of e⁻ from 1 mole of gaseous 1⁺ ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 2⁺ ions.
What is the trend in Ionisation.Energy across periods? And Why?
▪️ Increases
Because:
N.C ⬆️
Shielding remains SAME
A.R ⬇️
Therefore, more energy required to remove e⁻
Why does I.E drop from Be to B?
🔘Borons e⁻ is in a higher energy 2p orbital.
🔘 This orbital is further away from the nucleus
🔘 Little more shielding from the 2s orbital
Therefore, less energy required to remove Borons e⁻
Why does I.E drop from N to O?
Electron repulsion in 2p orbital between O & B
🔘 And Shielding remains SAME!!
Therefore, it is easier to remove O’s e⁻
What is the trend in M.P/ B.P across periods 2 & 3?
Increases then Decreases
Because :
(Increases): Giant Metallic –> Giant Covalent
(Decreases): Giant Covalent –> Simple Covalent
What are the complete elemental forms of :
N P O S F/Cl/Br/I
N₂ P₄ O₂ S₈ F₂ ⁄Cl₂ ⁄Br₂ ⁄I₂
Name the 3 types of Inter.Molecular.Forces (IMF) that apply to covalent bonding only and arrange in order of weakest first.
Van der Waals
Dipole-Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding
- Temporary D-D force applies to?
- Permanent D-D force applies to?
- H-bonding only occurs between H:???
- Non Polar molecules e.g Cl₂ ( Cl⁺➖Cl⁻)
- Polar molecules e.g. HBr (H⁺➖Br⁻)
- H⁺➖N⁻
H⁺➖O⁻
H⁺➖F⁻
Which bonding has low or high M.P/B.P? :
Covalent (Simple)
Covalent (Giant)
Ionic (Giant)
Metallic (Giant)
Covalent (simple) =
Low M.P/B.P
Covalent (Giant)
Ionic (Giant) = High M.P/B.P
Metallic (Giant)
Why is Group.2 called Alkaline Earth Metals?
As they form compounds which are alkaline.
What is the trend of Atomic.Radius down Group.2?
Atomic Radius increases as metallic ions/elements get bigger down the group.
What is the I.E trend down Group 2?
I.E decreases down the group as
A.R ⬆️
Shielding ⬆️
N.C ⬆️ : But it is outweighed by the other 2 factors. Due to Larger atoms
🔴 MORE REACTIVE!!!
Why does Reactivity Increase down Group.2?
Due to elements losing 2 e⁻ which becomes easier down the group due to I.E decreasing.
Therefore Reactivity increases!
What is the trend in M.P/B.P down Group 2?
M.P/B.P Decreases down Group 2 due to:
▪️ metallic ions getting bigger - A.R Increases
▪️ Smaller Charge/Volume ratio - meaning e⁻s are spread out further
Therefore, there is a reduced electrostatic attraction between the metallic ions and sea of delocalised e⁻s .
So it requires less energy to break the bonds.
Ba(s) + 2H₂O →
Ba(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)
Mg(s) + H₂O →
MgO(s) + H₂(g)
2Be(s) + O₂(g) →
2BeO(s)
Be(s) + Cl₂(g) →
BeCl₂(s)
How do the solubilities of Group 2 deviate down the group?
🔹SO₄²⁻
♻️CO₃²⁻
♦️OH⁻
SO₄²⁻ Decrease down
CO₃²⁻ Decrease down
OH⁻ Increase down
E.g. BaSO₄ = Insoluble
BaCO₃ = Insoluble
Ba(OH)₂ = Soluble
Group 2 Oxides can act as bases:
🔸 MgO + H₂O → ?
🔹 MgO + 2HCl → ?
♦️ Mg(OH)₂ + 2HCl → ?
🔸 Mg²⁺ + 2OH⁻
🔹 MgCl₂ + H₂O
♦️MgCl₂ + 2H₂O
A strict test for group 2 SO₄²⁻ ?
Add HCl + BaCl₂ =
ppt forms
Why do we add HCl to BaCl₂?
The acidic HCl removes any impurities and Carbonates (CO₃²⁻) that lurk around in (aq) preventing them from reacting with BaCl₂ to form other ppt which is not a true test for sulphates. !
What are the uses for:
🔘Ca(OH)₂
🔘Mg(OH)₂
🔘BaSO₄
🔘MgSO₄
?
✔️Ca(OH)₂ = Neutralise acidic soil
✔️Mg(OH)₂ = Indigestion remedies
✔️BaSO₄ = ‘Barium Meals’… X-Ray
✔️MgSO₄ = Epsom Salts/Mild Laxative
Properties of Halogens-
What are + the standard states of:
🔸Fluorine ?
Chlorine ?
Bromine ?
Iodine ?
F₂ (g) : Pale yellow gas
Cl₂ (g) : Green gas
Br₂ (l) : Red / Brown liquid
I₂ (s) : Dark Grey solid / Purple Fumes
What is the trend in Atomic Radius / Ionic Radius down Group 7?
Increases
Due to more Shielding
What is the trend in M.P/B.P down Group 7?
Increases
Due to larger atoms
Which means more e⁻s
So more van der Waals between molecules which becomes stronger!
What is the trend in Electronegativity down Group 7? And Why?
Decreases
▪️larger atoms : bonding e⁻s further away from nucleus
▪️More shielding between nucleus & bonding e⁻s
These 2 factors outweigh Increased N.C due to more protons.
↪️ Less attraction bet. Nucleus & bonding e⁻s.
What is an :
Oxidising agent ?
Reducing agent ?
Oxidising agent =
e⁻ gainer
Reducing agent =
e⁻ loser (donor)
Down Group 7, Reducing agents get (worse/better) and Reduce H₂SO₄ (more/less).
✔️Better
✔️More
Test for halide ions -
Reactions w/ H₂SO₄:
Name the 4 reducing products of H₂SO₄ in order
- NaHSO₄
- SO₂
- S
- H₂S
🅰️ NaCl/NaBr/NaI + H₂SO₄ →
NaHSO₄ + HCl/HBr/HI⤵️ (White Misty Fumes)
🅱️ 2Br⁻ + H₂SO₄ + 2H⁺ →
Br₂ + SO₂ + 2H₂O
© 6I⁻ + H₂SO₄ + 6H⁺ →
3I₂ + S + 4H₂O
D) 8I⁻ + H₂SO₄ + 8H⁺ →
4I₂ + H₂S + 4H₂O
Test for halide ions-
Using Silver Nitrate:
What do we add first before adding Acidified AgNO₃? And why?
🔹Add Dil. HNO₃
Because: it removes any soluble carbonates (CO₃²⁻) and hydroxides (OH⁻) –> these have the potential to react with AgNO₃ to form insoluble Ag₂CO₃ & AgOH… mixing all these ppt’s = DISASTER!!!!
- AgNO₃ + F⁻ →
- AgNO₃ + Cl⁻ →
- AgNO₃ + Br⁻ →
- AgNO₃ + I⁻ →
- NO ppt!(as F⁻ is soluble)
- AgCl[White ppt] + NO₃⁻
- AgBr[Cream ppt] + NO₃⁻
- AgI [Yellow ppt] + NO₃⁻
Which ppt dissolves in Dilute NH₃?
Cl⁻ or Br⁻ or I⁻
Cl⁻
Adding Conc. NH₃ to the remaining ppt’s dissolves which halide?
Br⁻ or I⁻
Br⁻
Halogen Disproportionation Reactions:
Cl₂ + H₂O ⇌
HClO + HCl
In Sunlight:
2Cl₂ + 2H₂O →
4HCl + O₂
Chlorination of pools:
NaClO(s) + H₂O →
Reaction w/ NaOH:
Cl₂ + 2NaOH →
HClO + Na⁺ + OH⁻
NaClO + NaCl + H₂O
Disproportionation definition :
When a species is being oxidised and reduced at the same time in the same reaction
Period 3 - The Elements
Na = Structure = --------------------- Mg = Structure = --------------------- Al = Structure = --------------------- Si = Structure = --------------------- P₄ = Structure = --------------------- S₈ = Structure = --------------------- Cl₂ = Structure = --------------------- Ar = Structure =
Na = soft METAL Bond = Giant Metallic --------------------- Mg = silver coloured METAL Structure = Giant Metallic --------------------- Al = silver coloured METAL Structure = Giant Metallic --------------------- Si = shiny solid NON-METAL Structure = Giant Covalent --------------------- P₄ = Red/White solid NON-METAL Structure = Simple Covalent --------------------- S₈ = Yellow Solid NON-METAL Structure = Simple Covalent --------------------- Cl₂ = Green gas NON-METAL Structure = Simple Covalent --------------------- Ar = colourless gas NON-METAL Mono-Atomic
Why is chlorine useful?
🔻Kill bacteria in water
🔻Used to make bleach (NaClO)
How reactive is Na with water?
2Na + 2H₂O(l) →
What is the pH of the product formed?
Vigorous
2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)
pH 13-14 Alkaline
How reactive is Mg with water?
Mg + 2H₂O(l) →
What is the pH of the product formed?
Slow w/ cold water
Mg(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)
pH 10 Alkaline
How reactive is Mg with steam?
Mg + H₂O(g) →
What is the pH of the product formed?
Faster w/ heat + steam
MgO(s) + H₂(g)
pH 9 Slightly Alkaline
How does Cl react with water?
Cl₂(g) + H₂O(l) →
What is the pH of the product formed?
Dissolves
HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
pH 1-2 Acid
Period 3 reactions w/ Oxygen:
Na : Colour? ▪️2Na + ½O₂ → ----------------------- Mg : Colour? ▪️Mg + ½O₂ → ----------------------- Al : Colour? ▪️2Al + 1½O₂ → ----------------------- ▪️Si + O₂ → ----------------------- P : Colour? ▪️Bright White Flame ----------------------- S : Colour? ▪️S + O₂ → 🔹SO₂ + ½O₂ →
Na - Yellow Flame Na₂O ----------------------- Mg - Bright White Flame MgO ----------------------- Al - Bright White Flame ▪️Al₂O₃ (slow) ----------------------- ▪️SiO₂ (slow) ----------------------- P - Bright White Flame ▪️P₄O₁₀ ----------------------- S - Blue Flame ▪️SO₂ 🔹SO₃
Period 3 Oxides:
Na₂O : Structure
MgO : Structure
Al₂O₃ : Structure
SiO₂ : Structure
P₄O₁₀ : Structure
SO₂ : Structure
Na₂O : Giant Metallic
MgO : Giant Metallic
Al₂O₃ : Giant Metallic
SiO₂ : Giant Covalent
P₄O₁₀ : Simple Covalent
SO₂ : Simple Covalent
Na₂O : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸 Na₂O + H₂O → pH?
MgO : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸MgO + H₂O → pH?
Al₂O₃ : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸
SiO₂ : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸
P₄O₁₀ : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸P₄O₁₀ + 6H₂O → pH?
SO₂ : (SolubleInsoluble)
🔸 SO₂ + H₂O → pH?
SO₃ : (SolubleInsoluble)
🔸SO₃ + H₂O → pH?
Na₂O : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸 2NaOH -> pH = 14
MgO : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸 Mg(OH)₂ -> pH = 10
🔺Al₂O₃ :
🔴Insoluble in H₂O
🔻SiO₂ :
P₄O₁₀ : (Soluble/Insoluble)
🔸4H₃PO₄ -> pH = 0-2
SO₂ : (SolubleInsoluble)
🔸H₂SO₃ -> pH = 0-2
SO₃ : (SolubleInsoluble)
🔸H₂SO₄ -> pH= 0-2
Definition : Amphoteric
Where a compound (especially a metal oxide/hydroxide) able to react both as a base and acid
Neutralisation of period 3 Oxides:
Identify which oxides are Basic/ Amphoteric/ Acidic :
Na₂O MgO Al₂O₃ SiO₂ P₄O₁₀ SO₂
🔵Basic Oxides ;
1. Na₂O 2. MgO
☯️Amphoteric Oxides ;
Al₂O₃
🔴Acidic Oxides ;
1. SiO₂ 2. P₄O₁₀ 3. SO₂ 4. SO₃
🔵Basic Oxides ;
- Na₂O + H₂SO₄ →
- MgO + 2HCl →
- Na₂SO₄ + H₂O
2. MgCl₂ + H₂O
☯️Amphoteric Oxides
Al₂O₃ [Acting as a Base] :
Al₂O₃ + 6HCl →
Al₂O₃ [Acting as an Acid] :
Al₂O₃ + 2NaOH + 3H₂O →
[Base] : 2AlCl₃ + 3H₂O
[Acid] : 2NaAl(OH)₄
⬇️(Notice NO Water is produced!)
🅰️cidic Oxides ;
- SiO₂ + 2NaOH →
- P₄O₁₀+ 12NaOH →
- SO₂ + 2NaOH →
3b. + NaOH → - SO₃ + 2NaOH →
- Na₂SiO₃ + H₂O
- 4Na₃PO₄ + 6H₂O
- Na₂SO₃ + H₂O
3b. NaHSO₃ - Na₂SO₄ + H₂O
Write the simplified electronic configuration for
➖Cr
➖Cu
Cr = [Ar] 4s¹ 3d⁵
Cu = [Ar] 4s¹ 3d¹⁰
Write the simplified electronic configuration for
Mn
ℹ️ Mn²⁺
Mn = [Ar] 4s² 3d⁵
ℹ️ Mn²⁺ = [Ar] 3d⁵
What is a Complex?
A molecule with a T.M ion in the middle with ligands dative covalently bonded to them
🙂
What is a Ligand?
Molecule,Atom or ion that donates a pair of electrons to a central metal ion.
What is a coordination number?
Number of Coordinate bonds
Intro to Transition Metals -
There is a difference between D-BLOCK and TRANSITION METALS!
Define Transition Metals :
Define D-BLOCK elements :
T.M = elements which form STABLE IONS that have a PARTIALLY FILLED d-oribital.
D-Block = Elements that has its OUTER MOST ELECTRONS in the d-orbital
Which 2 elements from the D-Block are not Transition.Metals?
Sc and Zn
Energy absorbed can be calculated using: ?
∆E= hv
Energy = Planck’s Const. x frequency
Types Of Ligands:-
Monodentate: 1 L.P
Small :
Large :
Bidentate: 2 L.P
1.
2.
3.
Multidentate:
[Monodentate]:
Small = H₂O₎ NH₃/OH⁻₎ CN⁻
Large = Cl⁻
[Bidentate]:
- Ethanedioate
- (en) / ethane 1,2-diamine
- Benzene 1,2-diol
[Multidentate]:
EDTA⁴⁻ - CHELATE EFFECT
(Haem)- found in red blood cells
Coloured Ions -
🌗 Ligands…?… d-orbitals
Features that cause change in ∆E... 〰 〰 〰 〰
Ligands SPLIT d-orbitals!
〰Type of Metal
〰Type of Ligand
〰Oxidation State
〰Co-Ordination No.
💠 Colour depends on….?
💠Colour depends on energy gap ∆E -> which depends on oxidation state
OxidationNo.|Species|Col. | | 5️⃣ | | -------------------------- | | 4️⃣ | | ------------------------------- | | 3️⃣ | | ------------------------------- | | 2️⃣ | |
V²⁺
OxidationNo.|Species|Col. | | 5️⃣ | VO₂⁺ | YELLOW🔸 -------------------------- | | 4️⃣ | VO ²⁺ | BLUE 🔹 ------------------------------- | | 3️⃣ | V³⁺ | GREEN💚 ------------------------------- | | 2️⃣ | |
Why are Transition Metal Ions Coloured?
©
©
©
At a certain frequency:
© e⁻ move from ground state to excited state
© Light is absorbed
© Different colour of light is transmitted
When drawing Metal Complex Shapes, remember to:?
Use Dative Covalent Bonds pointing to the Central Metal Atom/[Ion]
Complexes can show …?
Optical Isomerism too!
OxidationNo.|Species|Col 5️⃣ | | -------------------------- 4️⃣ | | -------------------------- 3️⃣ | | -------------------------- 2️⃣ | |
OxidationNo.|Species|Col 5️⃣ | VO₂⁺ | 💛 -------------------------- 4️⃣ | VO ²⁺ | 💙 -------------------------- 3️⃣ | V³⁺ | 💚 -------------------------- 2️⃣ | V²⁺ | 💜
🐈alysis :-
Define Homogenous catalysts..
What do you form with homogenous catalysts only, during a reaction?
Homo. Cat. = Same phase as reactants
An INTERMEDIATE is formed in between!
What homogenous catalyst is used in the reaction between
S₂O₈²⁻ + I⁻ ?
Catalyst = Fe²⁺
Complete the equations:
- S₂O₈²⁻ + 2Fe²⁺ →
- 2Fe³⁺ + 2I⁻ →
Overall: S₂O₈²⁻ + 2I⁻ → 2SO₄²⁻ + I₂
[N.B. -The Catalyst not incl. in ionic eq]
- 2SO₄²⁻ + 2Fe³⁺
2. I₂ + 2Fe²⁺
Define Heterogeneous Catalysts..
Name the 3 processes that use heterogeneous catalysts and name the catalysts used for each process.
Hetero. Cat = Different phase to reactants
🌐 Haber Process (NH₃)
- Cat. Fe(s)
🌐 Contact Process (H₂SO₄)
- Cat. V₂O₅(s)
🌐 Methanol Process
- Cat. Cr₂O₃(s)
Haber Process:
N₂ + 3H₂ →
2NH₃
Contact Process:
- V₂O₅ + SO₂ →
- V₂O₄ + ½O₂ →
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
- V₂O₄ + SO₃
2. V₂O₅
Methanol Process:
CO + 2H₂ →
CH₃OH
Define Autocatalysis..
- 2MnO₄⁻ + 5C₂O₄²⁻ + 16H⁺→
- 4Mn²⁺ + MnO₄⁻ + 8H⁺→
- 2Mn³⁺ + C₂O₄²⁻ →
When a PRODUCT catalyses the reaction
- 2Mn²⁺ + 10CO₂ + 8H₂O
- 5Mn³⁺ + 4H₂O
- 2Mn²⁺ + 2CO₂
Redox Titrations -
- ?
- ?
- Calculate MOLES of chemical in burette
- Calculate MOLES of chemical in flask (25cm³)
- Work out MOLES in original soln
- Work out Mass/Conc. of ORIGINAL sample …… M= molxMr | C = n/v
- Write out 2 ½ equations
2. Combine to work out full IONIC EQUATION
[Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + 2OH⁻ →
[Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + 2H₂O
[Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + 2NH₃ →
[Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + NH₄⁺
[Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + 4NH₃ →
[Cu(H₂O)₂(NH₃)₄]²⁺ + 2OH⁻ + 2H₂O
[Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + CO₃²⁻
CuCO₃ + 6H₂O
[Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + 4HCl →
What colour solution is formed?
[CuCl]²⁻ + 6H₂O
Yellow Soln
[Fe(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + 2OH⁻ →
[Fe(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + 2H₂O
[Fe(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + 2NH₃ →
[Fe(H₂O)₄(OH)₂] + 2NH₄⁺
[Fe(H₂O)₆]²⁺ + CO₃²⁻ →
FeCO₃ + 6H₂O
[Fe(H₂O)₆]³⁺ +3OH⁻ →
[Fe(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] + 3H₂O
[Fe(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 3NH₃ →
[Fe(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] + 3NH₄⁺
2[Fe(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 3CO₃²⁻ →
2[Fe(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] + 3CO₂ + 3H₂O
[Fe(H₂O)₆]³⁺+ 4Cl⁻ →
What colour solution is formed?
[FeCl]⁻ + 6H₂O
Yellow Soln
[Al(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 3OH⁻ →
[Al(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] +3H₂O
[Al(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 3NH₃ →
[Al(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] + 3NH₄⁺
[Al(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 4OH⁻ →
[Al(H₂O)₂(OH)₄]⁻ + 4H₂O
2[Al(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + 3CO₃²⁻ →
2[Al(H₂O)₃(OH)₃] +3CO₂ + 3H₂O