intro psych midterm Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

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2
Q

Psychology focuses on

_______ and ________

A

empirical evidence and critical thinking.

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3
Q

are pseudopsychologies scientific?

A

Pseudopsychologies (e.g., psychics, mediums) are nonscientific.

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4
Q

Psychology’s Four Goals

A
  1. Description: tells “what” occurred
  2. Explanation: tells “why” a behavior or mental process occurred
  3. Prediction: identifies conditions under which a future behavior or mental process is likely to occur
  4. Change: applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behavior or to bring about desired goals
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5
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

father of psychology.” (European) ; Structuralism through systematic introspection.

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6
Q

Structuralism:

A

sought to ID the basic building blocks (elements), or structures of mental life through systematic introspection

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7
Q

Systematic introspection:

A

– rigorous self-report of internal experiences – describe visual stimuli, sounds, and tastes

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8
Q

William James

A

(North American) ; functionalism; inspired by Darwin; Need to understand the goal of a mental activity in order to understand its parts; Included research on emotions and observable behavior

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9
Q

Functionalism.

A

studied how the mind functions to adapt organisms to their environment; Strongly influenced by Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

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10
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

(European) ; Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic Perspective; Basis of personality: Id, Ego and Superego; believed Psychological problems are solved by insight – understand how memories and mental processes lead to problematic behaviors

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11
Q

Functionalism:

A

studied how the mind functions to adapt organisms to their environment; Strongly influenced by Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

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12
Q

Id, Ego and Superego

A

Freud’s notion of the basis of personality;
Id:
Ego:
Superego:

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13
Q

Watson & Skinner

A

Behavioral perspective; Watson developed principles of behavior modification – behaviors are changed through reinforcement & non-reinforcement ; B.F. Skinner-North American

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14
Q

Behavioral Perspective:

A

objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior - measurable

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15
Q

Behavioral Perspective:

A

objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior - measurable

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16
Q

Humanistic Perspective:

A

free will & personal growth—people are in control of their destinies not controlled by unconscious impulses (reaction to Freud) ; led to the modern field of positive psychology (Rogers & Maslow early influences)

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17
Q

carl rogers

A

(North American); humanistic perspective; established Rogerian therapy which was based on unconditional positive regard

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18
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

(North American); humanistic perspective; studied mentally healthy people and eventually created Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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19
Q

Cognitive Perspective:

A

studies thoughts, perception, & information processing; Infers mental processes from observable and measurable behavior; Schemas

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20
Q

Neuroscientific/ Biopsychological Perspective

A

Focuses on genetics & biological processes in the brain/nervous system to understand normal and abnormal brain activity leading to observable behaviors

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21
Q

Sociocultural Perspective:

A

social interaction & cultural determinants of behavior & mental processes; Factors such as ethnicity, religion, occupation and socioeconomic class have enormous psychological impact on behavior and mental processes; Cannot fully understand behavior without considering individuals in their appropriate social and cultural context

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22
Q

Evolutionary Perspective:

A

natural selection, adaptation, & evolution of behavior & mental processes- Charles Darwin

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23
Q

Evolutionary Perspective:

A

behavior and mental processes are a result of natural selection and adaptation – evolution; Belief in inborn mental processes, tendencies; Controversial – Nature versus Nurture- influenced by Charles Darwin

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24
Q

The biopsychosocial model of psychology:

A

combines biological, psychological, & social processes; interacts with the seven major perspectives

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25
Q

Mary Calkins

A

one of the first women in psychology; first female president of APA; developed the paired-associate learning technique which is still used for studying memory today

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26
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn:

A

the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (structuralist); -pre-comparative psychologist – understanding the mental processes of animals

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27
Q

Francis Cecil Sumner

A

First African American to receive his Ph.D. in psychology; Researched racism and bias in psychological theories as well as bias in the administration of justice; Also focused on psychology of religion

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28
Q

Kenneth B. Clark

A

first African American APA president; he & his wife (Mamie Clark) documented the harmful effects of racial segregation in schools; Best known for their study Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children and Brown vs the Board of Education – “separate but equal” schools are unconstitutional

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29
Q

Martha Bernal

A

the first Latina to receive her Ph.D. in Psychology in the U.S.; Advanced multicultural psychology and the training of clinicians in diversity; Increased use of empirically validated interventions in the treatment of children

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30
Q

Elizabeth Loftus

A

Cognitive psychologist and expert on memory; Developed seminal work on the “misinformation effect”; Questioned recovered memories; Her work has had a profound effect in the criminal justice system

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31
Q

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study:

A

Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and studied the effects of untreated syphilis in 400 African American men. ; They were not informed that they were participating in an experiment.; They were not given treatment with penicillin when it became available.

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32
Q

World War II – Cold War:

A

US Government-funded research on the effects of radiation exposure. It was conducted on uninformed individuals – pregnant women, cancer patients, mentally challenged students, etc.

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33
Q

World War II – Germany:

A

Heinous “research” conducted on concentration camp prisoners and Chinese prisoners of war by Nazi scientists and Japanese scientists.

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34
Q

Gynecologic Surgery Ethics violation

A

– Dr. J. Marion Sims – achieved medical advances through experimental surgical techniques on Black slaves

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35
Q

Informed Consent -

A

Participants must be informed of the nature of the research (benefits, risks, etc.). Consent must be documented.

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36
Q

Voluntary Participation –

A

Participants can withdraw from the study at any time

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37
Q

Restricted use of Deception –

A

Participants may not respond naturally if they know the true purpose of the study. Deception to be used only when absolutely necessary.

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38
Q

Debriefing –

A

Participants should be debriefed at the conclusion of the study.

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39
Q

Confidentiality –

A

Info from participants is confidential and cannot be published in such a way that the person’s privacy is compromised.

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40
Q

Alternative Activities –

A

If participation is part of a course requirement, the student must be given an alternative if they choose not to participate

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41
Q

Prior approval of research -

A

Institutional Review Board must approve of the study.

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42
Q

7 APA ethical guidelines for Human Research Participants:

A

Informed consent, voluntary participation, restricted use of deception, debriefing, confidentiality, alternative activities, prior approval of research

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43
Q

Rights of Nonhuman Participants:

A

Psychologists take great care in handling research animals, & animal care committees ensure proper treatment. But the use of nonhuman animals for research remains controversial.

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44
Q

Rights of Psychotherapy Clients:

A

Therapists must maintain highest of ethical standards & uphold clients’ trust & confidentiality. HIPAA

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45
Q

4 major steps of the scientific method:

A
  1. Observe
  2. Detect regularities
  3. Generate a hypothesis
  4. Observe (testing the hypothesis)
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46
Q

Basic Research:

A

Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge rather than for practical application; Meets the goals of describe, explain and predict

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47
Q

Applied Research:

A

Research designed to solve practical problems; Meets the goal of change

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48
Q

Four key research methods in psychology:

A
  1. Experimental
  2. Descriptive – Naturalistic Observation, Surveys, Case Study
  3. Correlational
  4. Biological
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49
Q

Types of Population Samples:

A

Convenience sample, Representative sample, Random sample

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50
Q

Experimental Research:

A

carefully controlled scientific procedure that manipulates variables to determine cause & effect–this direct manipulation of variables distinguishes it from correlational research

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51
Q

Key features of an experiment:

A
  1. Independent variable (IV) (a factor that is manipulated) versus dependent variable (DV) (a factor that is measured)
  2. Experimental group (receives treatment) vs. control group (receives no treatment)
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52
Q

Confounding Variable:

A

An uncontrolled variable that changes along with the IV. Changes in the DV could be attributed to the confounding variables rather than the IV.

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53
Q

internal validity

A

Effective control of confounding variables gives an experiment internal validity. High internal validity gives confidence that your explanation is more valid than other explanations

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54
Q

Potential researcher problems:

A
  1. Experimenter bias: researcher influences research results in his or her expected direction
  2. Ethnocentrism: believing one’s culture is typical of all cultures
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55
Q

Potential participant problems:

A
  1. Sample bias: research participants are unrepresentative of the larger population
  2. Participant bias: research participants are influenced by the researcher or experimental conditions
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56
Q

single or double-blind experimental design

A

a way to offset experimenter & participant bias

  1. single-blind: only the experimenter knows who is in the experimental group vs the control group
  2. double-blind: neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in which group
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57
Q

experimenter bias solution

A

blind observers, single-blind and double-blind studies, placebos

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58
Q

ethnocentrism solution

A

cross-cultural sampling

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59
Q

sample bias solution

A

random/representative sampling, random assignment

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60
Q

participant bias solution

A

anonymity, confidentiality, deception, single-blind and double-blind studies, placebos

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61
Q

Descriptive Research:

A

observes & records behavior without producing causal explanations

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62
Q

descriptive research methods:

A

naturalistic study, survey, case study

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63
Q

naturalistic observation

A

a descriptive research method; Observing and recording behavior and mental processes in the participant’s natural state or habitat; Can be affected by the researcher’s presence

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64
Q

survey

A

a descriptive research technique that questions a large sample of people to assess their behaviors and attitudes.; Self-report may not be reliable; the sample may not be representative

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65
Q

case study

A

In-depth study of a single research participant; Cannot generate cause/effect relationship

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66
Q

Psychological Tests

A

inferential statistics to measure differences among people; Can include achievement tests, aptitude tests, intelligence, and personality tests; Shows mean, median and mode, standard deviation (descriptive statistics); Very challenging to create tests and validate them!

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67
Q

Inferential statistics

A

allow the researcher to determine the probability that the results could occur by chance. If the probability is low = your results are statistically significant

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68
Q

Correlational Research:

A

observes or measures (without directly manipulating) two or more variables to find relationships between them

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69
Q

positive vs negative vs zero correlation:

A
  1. Positive Correlation: two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—either up or down
  2. Negative Correlation: two variables move (or vary) in the opposite direction—either up or down
  3. Zero Correlation: no relationship between two variables (when one variable increases, the other can increase, decrease, or stay the same)
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70
Q

Biological Research:

A

the scientific study of the brain & other parts of the nervous system

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71
Q

behavioral genetics: hereditary code

A

The study of the relative effects of genetic and environmental influences on behavior and mental processes

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72
Q

Evolutionary Psychology:

A

A subfield of psychology studying how natural selection and adaptation help explain behavior and mental processes; It suggests that common behaviors among human populations, from eating to fighting with our enemies, emerged and remain in human populations because they helped our ancestors survive.

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73
Q

Natural Selection:

A

The driving mechanism behind evolution, which allows individuals with genetically influenced traits that are adaptive in a particular environment to stay alive and reproduce – which helps the genome to survive into the next generation

74
Q

Genotype:

A

the actual genetic codeMutations however can change the genetic code

75
Q

Phenotype:

A

the observable characteristics of the genetic code (can be influenced by the environment)

76
Q

Genes:

A

provide the data for the development of characteristics but the environment can shape them (nature v nurture)

77
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes

A

human genes that produce tumor suppressor proteins that help repair damaged DNA.

78
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutated genes

A

either cannot make the protein or the protein does not function as intended, impairing DNA repair; If DNA is not repaired, the build-up of alterations in DNA may lead to cancer; Specific inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 increase the risk primarily of female breast and ovarian cancers; Breast & ovarian cancers associated with these mutations tend to develop earlier in women with these mutations than those without.

79
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2 account for about _ percent of hereditary breast cancers;

A

20 to 25

80
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2 account for about __ percent of all breast cancers.

A

5 to 10

81
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2 account for around __ percent of ovarian cancers.

A

15

82
Q

Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations

A

More prevalent amongst those of Ashkenazi Jewish descent than the general US population; also seen among Norwegian, Dutch, and Icelandic populations.

83
Q

Methods for studying heritability

A

Family Studies and Adoption Studies

84
Q

Family Studies

A

If a specific trait is inherited, biological relatives should show increased trait similarity, compared to unrelated people.; Closer relatives, like siblings, should show more similarity than distant relatives.

85
Q

Adoption Studies

A

If adopted children are MORE like their biological parents, then genetic factors have a greater influence on that trait. If adopted children are MORE like their adoptive parents, then environmental factors have a greater influence on that trait.

86
Q

Our nervous system consists of ____

A

neurons (cells responsible for receiving & conducting electrical impulses from the brain).

87
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

carry messages from the environment to the spinal cord and brain

88
Q

Interneurons

A

most common neuron; convey messages from one site to another

89
Q

Motor neurons

A

transmit messages and commands from the central nervous system (CNS) to muscles and glands to produce a response

90
Q

The structure of a neuron

A

Dendrites receive information from other cells –> cell body receives the info and if enough stimulation is received the message is passed on to the axon –> the axon carries the neuron’s message to other body cells–> terminal buttons of the axon form junctions with other cells and release chemicals called neurotransmitters

91
Q

some neuron’s axons are covered by a ___

A

myelin sheath which insulates and helps speed neural impulses

92
Q

Neural Communication

A

Within a neuron, communication results from an action potential(a neural impulse that carries information along the axon of a neuron).

93
Q

Refractory period –

A

“a rest between firing;” further action potentials cannot be generated

94
Q

neuron-neuron communication

A

Between neurons, communication occurs through the transmission of neural information across a synapse by neurotransmitters (chemicals released by neurons that alter activity in other neurons).; Receiving neurons receive multiple messages from other neurons. These multiple messages then determine if an action potential occurs or not.

95
Q

The sending neuron normally reabsorbs ______. this is called ______

A

the excess neurotransmitters (called “reuptake”) or they are broken down by special enzymes.

96
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh) Neurotransmitter

A

muscle action, learning, memory, REM sleep, emotion, decreased ACh plays a suspected role in Alzheimer’s disease

97
Q

Dopamine (DA)

A

movement, attention, memory, learning, and emotion; excess dopamine associated with schizophrenia; too little is linked with Parkinson’s; da also plays a role in addiction and the reward system

98
Q

endorphins

A

mood, pain, memory, learning, blood pressure, appetite and sexual activity

99
Q

epinephrine (or adrenaline)

A

emotional arousal, memory storage and metabolism of glucose necessary for energy release

100
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A

neural inhibition in the central nervous system; tranquilizing drugs, like Valium, increase GABA’s inhibitory effects and thereby decrease anxiety

101
Q

Norepinephrine (NE) (or noradrenaline (NA))

A

Learning, memory, dreaming, emotion, waking from sleep, eating, alertness, wakefulness, reactions to stress; low levels associated with depression; high levels linked with agitated, manic states

102
Q

Serotonin

A

mood, sleep, appetite, sensory perception, arousal, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and impulsivity; low levels associated with depression

103
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of :

A

brain & spinal cord

104
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of:

A

all nerves & neurons connecting CNS to the rest of the body; PNS is subdivided into the somatic&autonomic nervous systems and the Autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems

105
Q

spinal cord function

A

transmits information into & out of the brain

106
Q

Reflex

A

Innate, automatic response to a stimulus (e.g., knee-jerk reflex); Spine is responsible for these responses

107
Q

How the spinal reflex works:

A

skin receptors detect, for example, heat and send neural messages to sensory neurons –> sensory neurons send the neural messages to interneurons, which in turn connect with motor neurons –> motor neurons send messages to, for example, hand muscles, causing a withdrawal reflex before the brain receives the sensation of pain –> while the spinal reflex occurs, sensory neurons also send messages up the spinal cord to the brain –> a small structure in the brain, the thalamus, relays incoming sensory information to the higher, cortical areas of the brain –>an area of the brain known as the somatosensory cortex receives the message from the thalamus and interprets it as PAIN!

108
Q

Localization of function in the brain:

A

specialization of various parts of the brain’s particular functions. However, most part of the brain perform integrating, overlapping functions

109
Q

Hindbrain

A

Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum

110
Q

Medulla

A

Hindbrain structure responsible for vital automatic functions, such as respiration and heartbeat

111
Q

Pons

A

Hindbrain structure involved in respiration, movement, waking, sleep, and dreaming

112
Q

Cerebellum

A

Hindbrain structure responsible for coordinating smooth and precise/fine muscle movement, balance, and some perception and cognition; one of the first areas of the brain to be affected by alcohol.

113
Q

Midbrain

A

Collection of brain structures in the middle of the brain responsible for coordinating movement patterns, sleep, and arousal; houses reticular formation

114
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Diffuse set of neurons that helps screen incoming information and controls arousal

115
Q

Forebrain

A

Limbic System, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, , Cerebral Cortex, Amygdala, Corpus Callosum

116
Q

Limbic System

A

Interconnected group of forebrain structures involved with emotions, drives, and memory

117
Q

Thalamus

A

Integrates input from the senses and sends it to relevant areas of the brain

118
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern drives (hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression) and hormones

119
Q

Hippocampus

A

Part of the limbic system involved in forming and retrieving memories

120
Q

Amygdala

A

Limbic system structure linked to the production and regulation of emotions (e.g., aggression and fear)

121
Q

Cerebral Cortex:

A

thin surface layer on the left & right cerebral hemispheres; regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, & higher mental processes

122
Q

Frontal Lobes

A

Two lobes at the front of the brain governing voluntary behavior and decision-making, as well as higher functions such as thinking, personality, emotion and memory. Govern motor control (motor cortex), speech production in left lobe (Broca’s area).

123
Q

Parietal lobes

A

Two lobes at the top of the brain where bodily sensations are received and interpreted (somatosensory cortex)

124
Q

Temporal Lobes

A

Two lobes on each side of the brain above the ears involved in audition (auditory cortex), language comprehension in left lobe (Wernicke’s area), memory, and some emotional control

125
Q

Occipital Lobes

A

Two lobes at the back of the brain responsible for vision (visual cortex) and visual perception

126
Q

Association Areas of the brain

A

So-called quiet areas in the cerebral cortex involved in interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed by other parts of the brain

127
Q

corpus callosum

A

thick band of axons connecting and carrying messages between the two hemispheres

128
Q

brainstem function

A

responsible for automatic survival functions (i.e. heartbeat and respiration)

129
Q

lateralization of the brain

A

The left & right hemispheres specialize in particular (but often overlapping) operations.

130
Q

right hemisphere

A

controls left side of body and left visual field, is synthetic (figures things out by combining to form wholes); houses nonverbal abilities (music, art, perceptual and spatiomanipulative skills, expression of emotion, recognition of faces, patterns and melodies, some language comprehension

131
Q

left hemisphere

A

controls right side of the body and right visual fiels, is analytical (figures things out step by step); language functions (speaking, reading, writing and understanding language)

132
Q

the endocrine system

A

a collection of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream

133
Q

Hormones:

A

chemicals manufactured by endocrine glands & circulated in the bloodstream to produce bodily changes or to maintain normal bodily function.

134
Q

pituitary gland

A

controlled by hypothalamus; influences growth and lactation; also secretes many hormones, some of which affect other glands

135
Q

thyroid gland

A

affects metabolism

136
Q

adrenal glands

A

above the kidneys; arouse the body, control stress response, regulate salt balance and some sexual functioning

137
Q

parathyroid glands

A

behind the thyroid gland regulate calcium levels in the blood

138
Q

ovaries secrete ___

A

female sex hormones

139
Q

pancreas controls ____

A

the blood’s sugar level

140
Q

testes secretes ___

A

male sex hormones

141
Q

pineal gland

A

helps regulate sleep cycle and body rhythms

142
Q

why study human development?

A

to understand human nature, foster positive development and wellbeing

143
Q

developmental psychology focuses on ____

A

life span, particularly early life development as well as aging

144
Q

Stages of Prenatal Development -

A

3 stages of prenatal development

  1. Germinal (approx 2 weeks)
  2. Embryonic (approx 6 wks)
  3. fetal
145
Q

Prenatal Developmental Hazards

A
  1. Genetic factors may impact normal development of fetus, i.e. Down Syndrome
  2. Environmental agents, also called teratogens, can damage a developing fetus
146
Q

Key teratogens

A

alcohol, drugs (even prescription medications), smoking, viruses

147
Q

Physical Growth Infant - Toddler

A

From birth to 2 years of age child grows tremendously and brain experiences dramatic growth; Neurons in the brain grow in size an complexity, particularly in enriched environments; Motor skills develop; Nature & nurture account for developmental differences

148
Q

Physical Growth Toddler - Adolescence

A

From about 2 years of age to puberty growth continues although not as quickly as before; Hand-eye coordination matures; Brain processing speed increases; Adolescence begins around 11-13 during which there is a growth spurt and puberty begins; Puberty is the onset of sexual maturity

149
Q

Physical Growth – Adulthood & Aging

A

Physical maturity & prowess is at its height by our 20s;The transition to adulthood is defined differently across the world; Decline is slow and steady across virtually all physical functions but does vary among individuals; By age 50 the average woman begins menopause; As we age significant physical changes occur in the brain as well, for some seriously resulting in dementia

150
Q

conducting developmental research

A
  1. Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests

2. Behavioral Observations (Naturalistic vs Structured in a lab)

151
Q

naturalistic behavioral observations advantages and disadvantages

A

Advantage: natural setting
Disadvantage: conditions not controlled

152
Q

structured behavioral observations

A

Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings
Advantage: conditions controlled

153
Q

developmental research designs

A

cross sectional design vs longitudinal

154
Q

Cross-Sectional Designs

A

1 or more cohorts or age-groups studied; 1 time of testing; Studying age differences at any one time

155
Q

Longitudinal Designs

A

1 cohort; More than 1 time of testing; Study changes across time in one cohort

156
Q

key figures in developmental psychology

A

Piaget, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, Ainsworth, Bowlby, Harlow, Erikson

157
Q

Piaget Development Theory

A
  1. Intelligence: ability to adapt to environment
  2. Interactionist: both biological maturation and experience required for progress
  3. Constructivism: knowledge and meaning are formed from experience assimilation and accommodation
  4. basic idea: at each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way
158
Q

Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development

A

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operations, Formal operations

159
Q

Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage of development

A

(birth-2 years)
Infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are capable of symbolic thought using images or words and can therefore plan solutions to problems mentally.

160
Q

Piaget’s Preoperational stage of development

A

(2-7 years)
Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. But their thinking is not yet logical; they are egocentric (unable to take others’ perspectives) and are easily fooled by perceptions because they cannot rely on logical operations.

161
Q

Piaget’s Concrete operations stage of development

A

(7-11 years)
School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.

162
Q

Piaget’s Formal operations stage of development

A

(11-12 years)
Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.

163
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

Must understand the individual in his or her social context, not just as an individual; Intellectual development grows from a person’s attempts to master social interaction; Learning varies across cultures vs. Piaget’s stages are universal across cultures; The environment (particularly adults) will influence what a child thinks about and how they think

164
Q

Lawrence Kohlberg & the Stage Theory of Moral Development

A

Morality – the ability to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate actions; Kohlberg believed that people proceed through stages of moral development; Proposed 3 main levels of moral reasoning development; Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional

165
Q

preconventional level of moral reasoning development

A

level 1. Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

166
Q

conventional level of moral reasoning development

A

level 2. Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

167
Q

postconventional level of moral reasoning development

A

level 3. Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

168
Q

Sensation

A

The basic components or building blocks of an experience – patterns of light, tastes, changes in temperature, smells, etc. These are the fundamental components of an experience.

169
Q

Perception

A

The process by which the brain organizes and meaningfully interprets sensory information

170
Q

The brain needs to solve 3 key issues:

A

◦translating the incoming message
◦Identifying the key components of the message
◦Producing a stable interpretation

171
Q

process of sensation and perception

A

stimulus energy (light, sound, smell, etc.)–> sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose, etc.) –> neural impulses –> brain (visual, auditory, olfactory areas)

sensation in 1st 2 –> perception in second 2

172
Q

properties of visible light

A

wavelength, intensity, purity

173
Q

Hue

A

The dimension of light that produces color; changes in the wavelength of light result in changes in color observed

174
Q

Brightness

A

The aspect of visual experience that changes with light intensity, the amount of light falling on an object; as intensity increases perceived brightness increases

175
Q

Purity

A

Is determined by mixed wavelengths that influence saturation or richness of perceived colors

176
Q

Processing in the Retina

A

Rod and cone cells pass information to bipolar cells, then to ganglion cells which have receptive fields and many have center-surround fields

177
Q

receptive fields

A

Input is received from a number of other cells; The field then only responds to a particular pattern

178
Q

center-surround fields

A

Respond to light in the middle, not on the periphery, of the receptive field

179
Q

Dark adaptation

A

A process through which the eye adjusts to dim light; cones adapt within 8 min to max sensitivity and Rods continue to adapt for 25 min

180
Q

Dark adaptation

A

A process through which the eye adjusts to dim light; cones adapt within 8 min to max sensitivity and Rods continue to adapt for 25 min

181
Q

Higher-level feature detection

A

Some feature detectors respond to more complex patterns, such as corners, moving bars, bars of certain length and some respond to faces only (in humans, certain forms of brain damage such as strokes can cause prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)) but there are other parts of the brain specialized to handle other aspects of vision, such as motion

182
Q

Color Vision: Trichromatic Theory

A

Three types of cones in retina, each maximally sensitive to one range of wavelengths (wavelengths correspond to blue, green and red);