Lecture 1: Basic Concepts and methods in Neuropsychology

Question 1

What is a gyrus/Gyri?

Answer 1

A ridge or fold in the surface of the brain

Question 2

What is a sulcus?

Answer 2

A groove or furrow between gyri

Question 3

What are the four different views of the brain

Answer 3

Lateral view, Medial view, Dorsal view, Ventral view

Question 4

What does each view of the brain show?

Answer 4

Lateral = The side of the brain
Medial = The inner sides of the brain when cut down the middle
Dorsal = Top view of the brain
Ventral = Bottom view of the brain

Question 5

What did Galen find in gladiators?

Answer 5

Found that head injuries lead to mental illness which led to the idea that brain control leads to mental functions.

Question 6

What is the lesion method?

Answer 6

Studying the effects of brain damage on behaviour to identify functional areas of the brain

Question 7

What did Paul Breca discover?

Answer 7

That damage to specific areas of the brain caused speech production problems. Led to the discovery of Broca’s area

Question 8

What did Karl Lashley propose?

Answer 8

The theory of mass action

Question 9

What is the “mass action theory”?

Answer 9

The idea that the brain works as a whole and that damage in one area can be compensated by others

Question 10

What are the two types of study?

Answer 10

Single case studies and Group studies

Question 11

What are the main flaws of human patient studies?

Answer 11

Can only assess the function of the remaining brain but not the damages area itself

Question 12

What are the positives of animal studies?

Answer 12

They offer better control over experimental conditions

Question 13

What are the drawbacks of animal studies?

Answer 13

They come with ethical concerns and is difficult to generalise findings to humans

Question 14

What is electrophysiology?

Answer 14

Studying the brain’s physical activity to understand cognitive processes, mental states and brain function

Question 15

What are single cell recordings?

Answer 15

The observation of individual neurons

Question 16

When and how are single cell recordings often done?

Answer 16

It is done within the skull and usually within animals, however it can also be done to humans prior to surgery to remove epileptic tissue.

Question 17

What does “EEG” stand for?

Answer 17

EEG = Electroencephalogram

Question 18

What does an “EEG” measure?

Answer 18

The measures the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes that are placed on the scalp.

Question 19

What does an “EEG” capture?

Answer 19

It captures the general patterns of activity related to different states of consciousness

Question 20

What is an “ERP”?

Answer 20

ERP = Event related Potentials

Question 21

What does an “ERP” measure?

Answer 21

Measures brain response or a change in the brain’s electrical activity that is directly linked to a specific stimulus

Question 22

What are the techniques for modulating brain activity?

Answer 22

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation & Transcranial direct current stimulation

Question 23

What does “TMS” stand for?

Answer 23

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Question 24

How does a “TMS” work?

Answer 24

It is a non-invasive brain stimulation therapy that uses magnetic fields to stimulate brain nerve cells. A large coil is placed on the scalp near the targeted area. The coil rapidly generates magnetic fields that induces electric currents in the underlying brain tissue

Question 25

What does a "TMS" affect?

Answer 25

It affects: - The membrane potential of neurons - The possibility of an increase or a decrease in the firing of a neuron - Disrupts or enhances function in specific areas

Question 26

What does "tDCS" stand for?

Answer 26

Transcranial direct current stimulation

Question 27

What does "tDCS" do?

Answer 27

A constant current is passed from one electrode to the other over a paeriod of time

Question 28

What are the two electrodes used in a "tDCS"?

Answer 28

Anodes and Cathodes

Question 29

What do the two electrodes in a "tDCS" do?

Answer 29

Anodes = Neuronal Excitation (+) Cathodes = Neuronal Inhibition (-)

Question 30

What are the main differences between tDCS and other electrophysiological research techniques (6 differences)?

Answer 30

1) tDCS provides causal evidence that a brain region is involved in a behaviour of interest 2) tDCS influences a larger region of the brain than TMS 3) tDCS acts as a neural modulator without causing action potentials 4) tDCS cvan produce opposing effects through anodal and cathodal stimulation 5) tDCS can provide fewer physiological artefacts than TMS 6) Cheaper and more portable than TMS

Question 31

What is neuronal modulation?

Answer 31

The alteration of nervous system function by using targeted delivery of stimuli

Question 32

What are action potentials?

Answer 32

A rapid brief electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a nerve or muscle cell

Question 33

What are physiological artefacts?

Answer 33

Unwanted signals originating from the body

Question 34

What are the reported positive effects of tDCS?

Answer 34

Improves language training in aphasic patients

Question 34

What is Aphasia?

Answer 34

A language disorder caused by brain damage that affects how you communicate

Question 35

What does the effectiveness of tDCS rely on?

Answer 35

- Polarity - Location of reference stimulus - Single vs Repeated tDCS sessions - Intensity - Duration - Online vs offline stimulation - Participants

Question 36

What does it mean when the tDCS stimulation is online?

Answer 36

That the stimulation is happening during a task

Question 37

What does it mean when the tDCS stimulation is offline?

Answer 37

That the stimulation is happening before or after a task

Question 38

What are three other types of transcranial electrical stimulation

Answer 38

- Oscillatory tDCS - Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) - Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS)

Question 39

What does oscillatory tDCS do?

Answer 39

It is the application of a current which fluctuates in intensity at a given frequency.

Question 40

What is the main difference between oscillatory tDCS and tACS

Answer 40

They are exactly the same however tACS is not polarity specific

Question 41

What does tACS stand for?

Answer 41

Transcranial alternating current stimulation

Question 42

What does tRNS stand for?

Answer 42

Transcranial random noise stimulation

Question 43

What does tRNS do?

Answer 43

Random fluctuations in current intensity add neural noise to the targeted regions

Question 44

What is 'noise' in accordance to tRNS

Answer 44

A weak oscillating current that resembles white noise

Question 45

What is stochastic resonance?

Answer 45

A phenomenon that means that noise enhances a system's sensitivity to weak signals

Question 46

What does it mean if something is polarity specific?

Answer 46

The fact that the effects of the tDCS depend on whether the situation is anodal (positive) or cathodal (negative)

Question 47

In tRNS what does stochastic resonance do?

Answer 47

Can cause a weak signal to be boosted by increased background noise