Lecture 5

Question 1

Discuss Cannon’s fight or flight theory

Answer 1

When one is faced with imminent danger, the sympathetic and endocrine system causes a stress response resulting in fight or flight. You either flee the situation or face it.

Question 2

Discuss Selye’s general adaptation syndrome

Answer 2

There are 3 stages; alarm (psychological resources deal with the imposing threat), resistance (body only continues with necessary resources) and exhaustion (physiological resources are depleted and you try to mobilise again, if unable to neutralise the threat then it can lead to permanent damage). This is similar to Cannon’s theory as they are both automatic responses, uni-dimensional (solely on the degree of stress experienced) and doesn’t involve interpretation.

Question 3

Is it possible to have a universal rating scale for stress?

Answer 3

No, because stress is subjective so the death of a spouse might not be as stressful to one person as it is to another.

Question 4

Discuss Lazarus’ transactional model of stress

Answer 4

First there is primary appraisal where you assess whether the experience is stressful if it is, then stress occurs. This is in reaction to a potential stressor. There is also a secondary appraisal where you assess whether you can cope with the stress, if not, you experience stress. There’s a difference between perceived capability/demand and actual capability/demand. Also, it is good to note that stressors lead to a reaction but strain describes the reaction itself. Our perceptions can vary from demand because of our interpretation of the emotional meaning behind the experience. Strain experienced is caused by environmental demands as well as one’s appraisal.
Lazarus also argued that there are two types of stress; eustress and distress. Eustress is positive and one feels in control, for example, choosing to sky dive. Distress is negative and one feels out of control.

Question 5

Discuss McEwen’s research about stress

Answer 5

They coined the term allostatic load. They researched stress in relation to disease and found that the body constantly adapts to meet demands from external forces. However, when these external forces are chronic and are happening constantly (e.g. daily stress from work), the body constantly has heightened neuroendocrine responses it can be costly (for example it can cause disease, strain on organs, general wear and tear) - this is allostatic load. Emphasis on the chronic stress causing negative physiological problems.

Question 6

Discuss Mayne’s findings about stress and disease

Answer 6

Short bursts of stress stimulate the immune system, however, long bursts lead to immunosuppresence. It also increases the likelihood of unhealthy behaviours like drug use. It has been linked to so many diseases like diabetes or skin disorders.

Question 7

Discuss links between personality and coronary heart disease

Answer 7

People with type A; hostile, impatient and competitive, are more likely to develop CHD. However, the link is very complex. It has also been found that depression, hostility and anger combined can result in CHD. People with CHD are three times more likely to be depressed. Depression in CHD patients is a significant predictor of mortality. It can affect it directly by changing one’s biology or it can affect it indirectly by causing health behavioural changes, e.g. a lack of exercise, which in turn changes biological factors. Also, a lack of social interaction and living along can affect one’s mortality. However, psychosocial interventions have had no impact on mortality rates so you can’t infer cause and effect.

Question 8

List 4 types of chronic disorders associated with stress

Answer 8

Pain somatic disorders
Cardiovascular disorders
Disorders of the immune system
Cancers

Question 9

Discuss personality and cancer

Answer 9

Type C personalities; suppression, hopelessness and passivity, are associated with increased risk of cancer. The age that you need treatment for lung cancer has been linked with neuroticism, anger, hostility, depression and more. However, this isn’t a well supported idea as many studies have found no such relationship.

Question 10

Discuss occupational stress

Answer 10

Occupational stress is a big issue as billions of pounds are wasted due to people’s sick days. Occupational stress results in 23 days off work on average per each case. Stress is much more prevalent in educational jobs/public admin jobs due to pressures, deadlines and a lack of support.

Question 11

List 2 occupational stress models

Answer 11

Institute for social research model

Beehr and Newman’s facet model

Question 12

Discuss the institute for social research model

Answer 12

They observe 5 aspects; objective environment, psychological environment, responses from appraisal of employees, the duration and severity of response, enduring properties and interpersonal relations.

Question 13

Discuss the facet model for occupational stress

Answer 13

There are three facets; personal (stable characteristics like personality), environmental (stimuli in the work environment) and process (appraisal of the environment to see whether it is harmful).

Question 14

Discuss some workplace stressors

Answer 14

Workload, perceived control, job insecurity, low social support at work and job autonomy (control over tasks).

Question 15

How do you treat stress at work?

Answer 15

Either focus on the individual, the individual-organsiational interface or just the organisational interface. Stress management programs are better than the waiting list as they reduce hostility and depression. A combination of cognitive and behavioural stress management interventions are best and if interventions are added on top of this then the effectiveness reduces. However, most interventions don’t improve job satisfaction unless the participants are aware of the specific intervention. Workplace counselling seems to be the best overall method for reducing sick days. Organisational focused approaches are best as they help the individual and organisation. Individual focused have less long term benefits. The interventions should focus on both the sources of stress and the symptoms. You truly need to improve all aspects involving the quality of working life.

Question 16

Discuss Mackey’s study

Answer 16

They explored stress in the workplace by using the conservation of resources model. They argued that one’s perception of organisational fit is a resource and when one feels like they don’t have it, stress arises. They tested this on employees and found support for this idea, showing that one may be able to reduce workplace stress if an intervention occurs which makes employees feel like they have an organisational fit.

Question 17

Discuss Hobfoll’s study

Answer 17

They provided a coping theory for stress. The conservation of resources model states that one can cope with life if they can maintain resources such as personal characteristics or energies (time, money etc.). This theory combines multiples theories and argues that stress arises when there is a loss or a threat of loss of resources. One example of this is work-family conflict, this can cause stress because resources such as time can be lost in managing work and family roles which can result in things like job dissatisfaction.

Question 18

Discuss Holton’s study

Answer 18

They explored how people use coping strategies to deal with stress in the workplace. It was found that both adaptive and maladaptive strategies were used. Adaptive strategies mainly involved exercise and talking to friends and maladaptive strategies involve alcohol consumption and eating more. Both types managed stress, however, people only acknowledged managing stress effectively when they had adaptive coping strategies. Therefore, effective stress management programmes need to ensure that adaptive strategies are available at work, for example ensuring the maintenance of friendships or incorporating an exercise regime into the workday.

Question 19

Discuss Happell’s study

Answer 19

They explored how nurses cope with stress in the workplace and it was found that they have many adaptive and maladaptive techniques. The adaptive techniques involved using the social club, exercising and outdoor activities. Thus, this tells us that programmes should work towards ensuring these things are available in all workplaces. Furthermore, programmes such as monthly social events within work could be used to ensure there is high moral and to ensure the staff can relax and relieve their stress.

Question 20

Discuss Rampal’s study

Answer 20

They explored stress in students and found that it was mainly caused by financial difficulties, worries of the future and lack of emotional support. This can be applied to the workplace as many jobs may result in people worrying about financial difficulties for example. The students coped with their stress by planning and accepting the situation they are in. Thus, it can be argued that workplace programmes should aim to provide emotional support and provide advice and support about how to manage finance.