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Microbiology > Lecture Final > Flashcards

Lecture Final Flashcards

1
Q

Phase used to determine generation time

A

stationary

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2
Q

Phase in which number of dead cells outnumbers viable cells?

A

decline

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3
Q

Phase in which nutrients are plentiful but cells are not dividing

A

lag

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4
Q

A chemostat will keep cells growing in this phase

A

log

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5
Q

MIC and MLC

A

MIC refers to minimum inhibitory concentration, which is the amount of antibiotic that stops bacterial growth.

MLC is minimum lethal concentration

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6
Q

Difference between disinfectant and antiseptic?

A

Disinfectant is meant to be used on a non-living surface

antiseptic is used on living tissues.

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7
Q

Pili

A

gene transfer - helps exchange genetic information between bacteria

  • short hair like appendages
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8
Q

fimbriae

A

adhesion - helps bacteria stick together

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9
Q

what are plasmids? Name one possible property associated with plasmids.

A

organelle that contains some genetic information (DNA)

Used in gene transfer between bacteria

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10
Q

Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek

A

first observed wee animalcules

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11
Q

Louis Pasteur

A

disproved theory of spontaneous generation

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12
Q

Robert Koch

A

developed postulates to prove particular microbes cause certain diseases

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13
Q

Sergei Winogradsky

A

first described lithoautotrophy

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14
Q

Martinus Bijernick

A

enrichment culture techniques

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15
Q

Carl Woese

A

3 Domain classification system based on RNA

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16
Q

Bacteria belong to what kingdom based on Whittakers system?

A

Monera

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17
Q

Woeses system, extremophile belong to what domain?

A

All life divided into 3 primary lines of evolutionary descent called domains.

  • Based on ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
    1. Eukarya (includes first 4 Whittaker kingdoms)
      1. Bacteria (+/- 29 ‘phyla’ to date)
      2. Archaea (5 phyla to date)
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18
Q

Name one main group of extermophiles and describe the extreme environment they grow in.

A

halophiles - grow in a high salinity environment

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19
Q

Two microbial accomplishments

A

origin of life - all other life forms evolved from microorganisms

largest mass of life on earth - greater than all other living things combined

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20
Q

Two fundamental differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic nuclear structures

A

1 - euk - many linear chromosomes (usually pairs)
pro - one circular chromosome

  1. Euk - membrane bound nucleus
    pro - no nuclear envelope
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21
Q

What is a biofilm?

A

complex community of microorganisms that interact with each other and attached to a substrate ex. plaque

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22
Q

2 Advantages to life in biofilm?

A

protection - (from environmental surroundings and predators)

Easy exchange of nutrients and dna between themselves.

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23
Q

three things associated with the importance of being small in relation to bacterial cell

A

Greater surface area to volume ratio..

  • efficient exchange of nutrients with surroundings
  • faster metabolic reactions
  • faster gene transfer allowing for quick adaptations
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24
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

protects the cell, especially in hypotonic environments

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25
Q

Do bacteria produce endospores as reproductive structures?

A

endospores not reproductive, but mechanisms to resist threatening environments

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26
Q

streptococcus

A

spherical bacteria arranged in chains

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27
Q

transverse binary fission

A

process by which bacteria cells reproduce

  • time it takes for cell or pop to duplicate itself is generation time
  • determined by environmental factors
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28
Q

flagellum

A

bacteria structure that allows for motility

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29
Q

Define sterilization and example of method

A

kills all microorganisms including endospores

ex - gamma radiation

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30
Q

Define disinfection and example of method

A

kills most pathogens and reduces number of microoganisms but not endospores
ex - boiling

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31
Q

pop growth curve for bacteria.. in order..

A

lag, log, stationary, death

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32
Q

chemoheterotroph

A

organisms that use organic compounds as both carbon and energy source - mycohrryzal bacteria

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33
Q

lithoautotrophic

A

obtains energy from inorganic compounds and carbon from CO2

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34
Q

glycolysis

A

process where glucose catabolized to pyruvate

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35
Q

oxygen

A

terminal electron acceptor in aerobic respiration

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36
Q

fermentation

A

partial oxidation of glucose when no O2 present

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37
Q

paraplasmic space

A

space on either side of peptidoglycan

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38
Q

Whitetakers 5 kingdom system

A
  1. Animalia
  2. Plantae
  3. Fungi
  4. Protista (Protozoa and algae)
  5. Prokaryotae or Monera (Bacteria and Archaebacteria)
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39
Q

Domain Archea

A

closer to eukaryotes than bacteria

  • many are extremophiles
  • main groups… Methanogens, thermophiles, halophiles
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40
Q

Methanogens

A

Anaerobic, generate methane

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41
Q

Thermophiles

A

low pH, high temp

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42
Q

Halophiles

A

high salinity

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43
Q

cell envelope

A
  • selectively permeable membrane
  • site of metabolic activity
  • composed of proteins and phospholipid bilayer

Bacterial membranes are targets for many disinfectants and detergents.

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44
Q

phospholipid bilayer comprised of

A
  1. a polar head composed of a phosphate group and glycerol which is hydrophilic, therefore faces outward.
  2. two non-polar chains of fatty acids that are hydrophobic, face inward.
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45
Q

Proteins in bilayer

A
  1. Integral proteins are embedded in the bilayer.

2. Peripheral proteins are loosely attached to membrane on one side or the other.

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46
Q

Protein functions

A 
Transport
Recognition
Receptors
Channels
Enzymes
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47
Q

Cell walls

A
  • Unique structure, found in all bacteria except Mycoplasma.
  • Establishes the size and shape of the bacterial cell.
  • protects the cell in hypotonic environments.
  • structure varies (gram - or +)
  • Main component is a large polymer called peptidoglycan (PG).
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48
Q

PG consists of what?

A

parallel polysaccharide chains composed of two alternating sugars:
(NAG) and (NAM)

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49
Q

Gram positive characteristics

A

thick and simple
many layers of PG
contain teichoic acid
more sensitive to antimicrobial agents

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50
Q

Gram negative characteristics

A

thin but complex
1-2 layers of pg
outer membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
-contain porins (regulate passage of molecules )
-Lipopolysaccharide (branching chain of sugars and lipid A )
-paraplasmic space (houses exoenzymes, carrier proteins and chemoreceptors)

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51
Q

Inside bacterial cell…

A

cytoplasm
water
Ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) - target of many antibiotics bc different than euk.
-nucleoid - single, circular dbl strand of DNA
-plasmids -replicate independently from chromosomes

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52
Q

germination triggered by

A

nutrient and water availability

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53
Q

lag

A

searching for nutrients (adapting to new envrnmnt)

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54
Q

exponential growth

A

rapid growth

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55
Q

stationary

A

limiting factors - living cells=dying cells

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56
Q

death

A

living cells<dying cells

57
Q

antibiotic

A

chemical agent that can be used internally for control of disease
-natural product of a microorganism that can kill or inhibit growth of other microorganisms

58
Q

Sources of antibiotics

A

funghi and bacteria

59
Q

bacteristic vs bactericidal

A 
bactersitic= alter metabolic pathway or synthesis
bactericidal = attack cell wall or membrane
60
Q

characteristic of an ideal antibiotic

A
  • high selective toxicity
  • not allergenci
  • not interfere with normal host defense mechanisms
  • not induce development of antibiotic resistance
61
Q

evolution in resistance

A

variations in population
natural selection
time

62
Q

Metabolism

A

total of all chemical reactions in the cell that result in energy and synthesis of new macromolecules.

Important in understanding role of bacteria in biogeochemical cycling, biochemical testing and bioremediation and biotechnology

63
Q

Nutrional types for cells..

A

All living organisms need a source of energy and carbon.

All life forms can be categorized based on how they obtain their energy and carbon.

64
Q

chemoheterotroph

A

energy source: organic compounds
carbon source: organic compounds

ex many diverse bacteria
important in recycling of organic material

65
Q

photoautotrophs

A

energy source: sunlight
carbon source: CO2

ex cyanobacteria - primary producers of O2

66
Q

Photoheterotrophs

A

energy source: sunlight
carbon source: organic compounds

ex aerobic purple and green bacteria

67
Q

chemolithoautotrophs

A

energy source: inorganic compounds
carbon source: CO2

ex. nitrifying bacteria
primary producers important in
biogeochemical cycling

68
Q

Energy from organic chemicals can be obtained by bacteria through…

A

a. Aerobic respiration
b. Anaerobic respiration
c. Fermentation (anaerobic)

69
Q

aerobic respiration

A

glucose and other organic macromolecules are oxidized, releasing energy that is then stored in the form of high-energy phosphate bonds of ATP

-Complete oxidation

70
Q

3 steps in aerobic respiration

A

1-macromolecules broken down
-transport across membrane - digestion may occur outside cell first using exoenzymes
2-glycolysis - glucose catabolism - into simpler molecules (O2 not required) - takes place in cytoplasm.. to pyruvate
3-krebbs cycle - pyruvate completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O

71
Q

ATP

A
  • supplies building blocks for biosynthesis
  • generates large numbers of electrons

generated through chemiosmosis by enzyme called ATP synthase

72
Q

ETC

A

electron transport chain

-series of membrane bound carrier molecules through series of reduction-oxidation with O2 as final acceptor

73
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

terminal electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule aside from O2

-ETS is shorter and less efficient - so less ATP

74
Q

fermentation

A

partial oxidation of glucose - no external electron acceptor

  • anaerobic process
  • high energy products
75
Q

microbial ecology

A

study of the relationship between microbes with one another and their biotic and abiotic environment.

76
Q

biotic environment

A

includes population interactions. The symbiotic relationships between microbes and their animal and plant hosts shape our world.

77
Q

abiotic environment

A

involves biogeochemical cycling: the microbes key role in the biologically mediated transformation of elements.

78
Q

types of symbiosis

A
  • Commensalism
  • Synergism
  • Competition
  • Antagonism
  • Parasitism
79
Q

Commensalism

A

one population benefits, other unaffected

80
Q

Synergism

A

both populations benefit

-Complementary metabolic cooperation

81
Q

Competition

A

both populations are adversely affected

82
Q

Antagonism

A

alters environment to inhibit competition

83
Q

Parasitism

A

one population benefits (parasite), other adversely affected (host)

exViruses are obligate intracellular parasites of bacteria (bacteriophage), fungi, algae, protozoa, plants and animals

84
Q

Quorum Sensing

A

Bacterial communication

85
Q

use of nutrients by life..

A

Plants and microorganisms can use simple inorganic compounds as nutrients, animals require more complex organic compounds

86
Q

ammonification

A

Recycling of dead plant and animal protein into ammonia by soil bacteria

87
Q

nitrification

A

Ammonia is somewhat toxic to plants, can be oxidized to nitrites and further oxidized to nitrates that can be used by plants as a nitrogen source (assimilation).
Accomplished by chemoautotrophic bacteria that use this oxidation process to obtain energy.

88
Q

denitrification (minterlization)

A

Reverses nitrification, removes nitrates from soil and sewage (lowers BOD), but decreases soil fertility.
Used by bacteria that respire anaerobically using nitrates as terminal electron acceptor.

89
Q

These different ways that bacteria breaks down various molecules is used

A

bioremediation

90
Q

Traditional bioremediation includes

A
  • seal in containers
  • incinerating at high temps
  • treat in situ (limited by conditions of site)
91
Q

bioaugmentation

A

adding suitable microbes to a site that have been isolated through enrichment culture techniques

92
Q

Biostimulation

A

enhancement of environmental factors that may limit microbial growth

93
Q

Biomagnification / Bioaccumulation

A

an increase in the concentration of a chemical substance as it is transferred to higher trophic levels in a food web.
- used with heavy metals, DDT etc

94
Q

preventing contaminated drinking water..

A
  • routine testing
  • proper sewage disposal
  • purification of water supply
  • well maintained distribution system
  • watershed protection programs
95
Q

test water for…

A

-indicator organisms bc testing every pathogen is expensive and time consuming

96
Q

criteria for indicator organism

A
  • present whenever intestinal pathogens are present
  • not be present in uncontaminated environment
  • able to survive in environment for at least as long as pathogens
  • safe and easy to isolate in lab
97
Q

idicator organisms examples

A
  • coliform group of bacteria is used in NA for fresh water

- enterococci group is used to indicate fecal contamination of marine waters

98
Q

coliforms

A

Gram negative bacilli
Non-sporing
Facultative
Ferment lactose to acid and gas in 48 hours at 350 C.

99
Q

methods of detection

A
  • mpn - most probable number - stats method
  • mf - membrane filtration - quantitative test
  • P-A test - presence/absence test - qualitative
  • BOD - biochemical oxygen demand - indirect measurement of amount of organic matter
100
Q

Why BOD important?

A

dumping of organic matter increases # of heterotrophic organisms and aerobic respiration depletes the o2 in water - results in fish kills

101
Q

methods in determining o2 levels

A
  • dilution method - samples of varying conc diluted w/ known DO levels and then measured over time
  • manometric method - measures drop in air pressure as O2 is used up
102
Q

different types of waste…

A
  • domestic
  • industrial
  • ground/surface/atmospheric
103
Q

waste removal includes

A

removal of…
organic matter
human pathogens
toxic chemicals

104
Q

treatment includes..

A

pretreatment
primary (physical)
secondary (microbiological)
tertiary (chemical)

105
Q

pretreatment

A

shredding, skimming, screening

grit removal

106
Q

primary treatment

A

Physical or mechanical methods
Aim: to remove suspended solids (separate solids from liquids)

done through settling or sedimentation

removes 30-40% of BOD

107
Q

secondary treatment

A

aerobic or anaerobic methods
removes 90-95% of BOD by converting dissolved matter into removable biomass
-remove pathogens by predation by protozoans

108
Q

methods for secondary treatment

A

aerobic secondary treatment
-add O2 at faster rate than being removed

Anaerobic secondary treatment
-slower than aerobic but takes less energy

109
Q

porous biofilm material

A

-comprised of heterotrophic microbes

110
Q

aerobic secondary treatment methods..

A
  • can be done by adding algae and photosynthetic bacteria -can be slow and inefficient
    • can be done by trickling filters - effluent is added and oxygenated by rotating bloom sprinkler suspended over bed of porous biofilm-coated material
    • Can be done by activated sludge - air injection or mechanical mixing provides aeration (problem can be with bacteria overgrowing = bulking sludge)
111
Q

anaerobic secondary treatment methods..

A

anaerobic digesters (fermentation tanks)

  • treats dewatered sludge with anaerobic and facultative microbes including methanogen microbes - decreases stabilized sludge
  • methane gas (biogas) may be used to fuel system
  • sludge may contain contaminants

Septic tank

  • acts as settling tank and anaerobic microbes degrade organic acids to sulfer
  • solids sink and clarified effluent passes through to continue to be broken down
  • pathogens not necessarily killed - so need to put away from streams
112
Q

Tertiary treatment

A

various techniques
-physical, biologicaland chemical

aim to remove non-biodegradable organic pollutants and mineral nutrients

done by…

  • reverse osmosis
  • activated carbon filters
  • electrostatic reclamation
  • chemical flocculation and precipitation techniques
113
Q

wastewater as a resource…

A

-biogas from solids
-Wastewater heat energy: heat exchange technology
-Water reuse: divert grey water for reuse
: reuse treated effluent
-Nutrient recovery: phosphate and nitrogen

114
Q

potable water

A

water that does not contain pathogens or any other substance at concentrations that present a potential danger to human health.

115
Q

Well maintained municipal water supply needs..

A
  1. Source (watershed) protection
  2. Treatment (dependent on original state of water supply)
  3. Well maintained distribution system
    old systems may have drinking water lines laid next to sewage lines
  4. Routine monitoring / testing
  5. Policies in place for issuing ‘boil water’ advisories
116
Q

3 types of treatment of municipal water supply

A

-3 types…
-Sedimentation:
Holding period in reservoir
Particulates settle by gravity or may be enhanced by flocculation (alum)
Removes 80% of bacteria, turbidity and colour.
-Filtration:
Through sand; rapid or slow depending on height of water over filter bed.
Removes 99% of bacteria
+/- activated carbon to remove toxic compounds, smell, taste
-Disinfection:
Chlorine dosage
Usually combined with ammonia: Chloramine (chlorine or hypochlorite plus ammonia)

117
Q

biotechnology

A

Using naturally occurring microbes, that through mutation and selection (i.e. not genetically engineered), have been improved for environmental applications:

  • industry
  • agriculture
  • mining
  • environmental
118
Q

industry use of biotechnology

A

Alcohol and butanol for renewable biofuel

  • methane from sewage
  • biodegradable plastics
119
Q

agriculture use of biotech

A

Bt toxin – goal is to reduce the use of xenobiotic pesticides.

120
Q

mining use of biotech

A

bioleaching, microbial mining, is an economical way to recover metals from low grade ores

121
Q

environmental use of biotech

A

Biodesulfurization of coal:
Acid rain is caused by the release of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere as a result of burning of coal.

122
Q

biosensors

A

combine a biological sensor (enzyme, antibody, etc.) and an electronic signaling devise, able to detect very small concentrations of environmental pollutants.

123
Q

Genetic engineering

A

the manipulation of genes via recombinant DNA technology for practical applications

124
Q

Genetic Engineering over history…

A

from selective breading to manipulating DNA on a smaller scale

125
Q

why Genetic engineering important?

A

To learn more about how cells and genes work
To develop better treatments for disease
To produce valuable molecules (hormones, vaccines)
To improve plants and animals for agriculture

126
Q

How does DNA recomine in nature?

A
  • sexual reproduction
  • transformation in bacteria
  • plasmids carry non essential genes
  • viruses - can only reproduce in living cells
  • clone - genetically identical cells
127
Q

recombinant DNA technology

A

replicated in high copy numbers

  • isolate genes depending on ability of enzymes called restriction nucleases to cleave DNA at specific sites
  • cloning vehicles - bring foreign DNA and replicate in a cell
128
Q

DNA libraries

A

contain all DNA in segments

129
Q

amplification

A

rapid method used to amplify DNA in-vitro without having to clone the sequence in a host organism

-large quantities

130
Q

synthetic oligonucleotides

A

act as DNA primers for DNA synthesis in polymerase chain reaction

131
Q

How PCR used?

A

A. To generate large quantities of a specific sequence
B. To obtain DNA for cloning
C.To generate DNA for nucleotide sequencing
D. Diagnostic tests: can be used to amplify very small quantities of DNA eg.
AIDS, Lyme disease, Chlamydia
Tests are rapid, very sensitive and very specific
E. Very valuable for detection of genetic diseases eg. sickle cell anemia, muscular dystrophy
F. Forensic science – DNA fingerprinting

132
Q

Various technologies used to alter genes of a cell or organism

A
  • gene therapy
  • meat production
  • genetic engineering of plants
133
Q

Gene Therapy

A

(correcting a genetic disorder)
Gene is introduced into germ-line cells of an animal to correct a genetic disorder (germ-line gene therapy) – not permitted in humans

134
Q

meat production

A

(pharming)
Eg. For the production of proteins required to treat human diseases – eg. producing the desired proteins in milk (makes it harmless to animals)
Eg. Production of clotting factor in sheep (required for hemophiliacs)

135
Q

genetic engineering of plants

A

Has lead to increase in resistance to pests and disease
Greater tolerance to heat, drought and salinity
Faster growth
Resistance to herbicides

136
Q

GMO problems..

A

safety, ethics of use, environmental impact, biological warfare

137
Q

Applications of GMO

A

-medicinal
-agricultural
-

138
Q

transgenic

A

organisms that contain genes from foreign sources. Genes can be from one microorganism to another or from a plant or animal to a microorganism

139
Q

Super oil-eating bacteria

A

first genetically engineered microorganism ever patented (1981) was Pseudomonas putida containing 4 plasmids, each with genetic instructions for degrading one of the constituents of crude oil.

Microbiology (3 decks)

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