Macromolecules Flashcards
(227 cards)
1
Q
Most important large molecules found in living things
A
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
Nucleic acids
2
Q
Macromolecules
A
Large biological molecules that show unique emergent properties arising from the arrangement of atoms
3
Q
3 Key Macromolecules
A
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
Nuclei acids
- Proteins
4
Q
Polymers
A
long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
5
Q
Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acid are chain-like molecules called
A
polymers
6
Q
Monomers
A
smaller molecules that are the repeating building blocks of a polymer
7
Q
Each class of polymer is made of
A
different type of monomer
8
Q
Enzymes
A
Macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
9
Q
Dehydration reaction
A
two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule
10
Q
The reaction connecting the monomers and is repeated whenever a monomer is added to the chain
A
dehydration reaction
11
Q
hydrolysis
A
Polymers are disassembled to monomers
12
Q
how does hydrolysis break down polymers
A
The bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule
13
Q
Dehydration reactions and hydrolysis can also be involved in the formation and breakdown of molecules
A
that are not polymers (lipids)
14
Q
The inherited differences between close relatives of macromolecules
A
Reflect small variations in polymers
15
Q
Molecular differences between unrelated individuals
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Are more extensive than those of close relatives
16
Q
molecular difference between species
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even greater than both close relatives and unrelated individuals
17
Q
The key to the diverse polymers is the
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arrangement of the units
18
Q
Molecular structure are function can still be grouped by
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class despite the diversity
19
Q
Molecular logic of life
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Small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into unique macromolecules
20
Q
Carbohydrates serve as
A
fuel and building material
21
Q
carbohydrates include
A
sugars and polymers of sugars
22
Q
Monosaccharides
A
simplest carbohydrates
23
Q
what reaction is this
A
dehydration reaction
24
Q
what reaction is this
A
hydrolysis reaction
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single sugar
monosaccharaides
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Disaccharides
a. Double bonded sugars
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Disaccharides consist of
two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
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is this a Disaccharides or Monosaccharides or a polysaccharides
Disaccharides
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is this a Monosaccharides or a Disaccharides or a polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
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polysaccharides
Composed of many sugar building blocks
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is this a Monosaccharides or a Disaccharides or a polysaccharides
polysaccharides
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Monosaccharides Have molecular formulas that are
some multiple of the unit CH2O
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most common monosaccharide
glucose
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Glucose structure
Has a carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl groups
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what 3 things classify a monosaccharide
1. location of the carbonyl group
2. number of carons in the skeleton
3. position of hydroxyl group around the skeleton
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aldoses
sugars with an aldehyde group
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ketoses
sugars with a ketone group
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trioses
3 carbon sugars
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is this an aldose or ketose
Adlose
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is this an aldose or ketose
ketose
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An example of an aldose
glucose
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an example of a ketose
fructose
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what is the best way to draw glucose
in rings
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why is glucose drawn in rings
its more stable in aqueous soulutions
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glucose is ____ for cells
major nutrients
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Monosaccharides are both _____ for cells and _____ for larger organic molecules
major fuel sources and raw material
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Disaccharides are formed by
Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
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Glycosidic linkage
covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
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what is the most common disaccharide
sucrose
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polysaccharides
polymers of sugar that have storage and structural roles
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The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by the
sugar monomers and the position of the glycosidic linkage
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Storage polysaccharides in plants
Store starch as granules within cellular structures known as plastids
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Synthesizing starch allows the plant to
stockpile excess glucose
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Sugar can be withdrawn from the carbohydrate "bank" by
hydrolysis
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storage polysaccharides in animals
Store polysaccharide called glycogen
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glycogen is like glucose but
it's more branched
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by being more branched, glycogen has
more free ends available for hydrolysis
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glycogen is mainly stored in the
liver and muscle cells
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the hydrolysis of glycogen releases _____ when the demand for ____ increases
glucose and energy
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Simplest form of starch is
unbranched
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Structural Polysaccharides example
cellulose
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Cellulose is a major component of what plant cells
the cell wall
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Cellulose is a polymer of
glucose
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how is cellulose different from starches
through its glycosidic linkages
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In starch, all glucose monomers are in what configuration
the alpha configuration
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in cellulose, it's glucose monomers are in the ____ configuration
beta
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what does the beta configuration do to the glucose monomer
b. Every glucose monomer is "upside" compared to its neighbour
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Is this alpha or beta configuration?
alpha
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Is this alpha or beta configuration?
beta
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Enzymes that hydrolyze (or digest) α linkages in starch cannot do what
digest beta linkages in cellulose
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how does cellulose pass through the human digestive tract
as insoluble fibre
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The differing glycosidic linkage between starch and cellulose
Give the two molecules distinct three dimensional shapes
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Starch molecules have a shape of
spiral shape
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cellulose molecules have a shape of
straight line
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why are cellulose molecules never branched
imparting strength to parts of the plant
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Enzymes that digest starch can do what
only hydrolyze either the alpha or beta linkage based on the different shapes of the molecules
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how can some animals digest cellulose
they have a symbiotic relationship with microbes that can digest cellulose
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structural polysaccharides also do what
(think arthropods)
strengths chitin
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chitin hardens when
proteins are chemically linked to each other
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how is chitin found in fungi
i. Use this instead of cellulose as the building material for their cell walls
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Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that
does not form polymers
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lipids are not _____ because of their _____
macromolecules and size
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what one trait do all lipids share
they are hdyrophobic
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why are lipids hydrophobic
their molecular structure and hydrocarbon bonds
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Most biologically important lipids
a. Fats
b. Phospholipids
c. Steroids
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fats are made from
glycerol and fatty acids
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Glycerol
three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl attached
to each carbon
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Fatty acids
carboxyl group linked to a long
hydrocarbon chain
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a fat is also known as
triacylglycerol
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Ester linkage:
Dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl and carboxyl group
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how are fats made
Three fatty acid molecules are each joined to glycerol by an ester linkage
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The fatty acids can be ______ or ____ different kinds
same or two/three
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• Fats separate from water because
water molecules hydrogen-bond to
each other, but exclude the non-polar fats
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A major function of fats
1. Energy storage
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adipose cells
1. Location of long-term food reserves in humans and mammal
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adipose cells do what as fat is deposited and withdrawn from storage
swell and shrink
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Adipose tissue does what
1. Cushions vital organs (example: kidneys)
Layer of fat beneath the skin insulates the body
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• Saturated fatty acids have
1. No double bonds between carbon atoms of a chain
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in Saturated fatty acid
As many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton
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Most animal fats are
saturated
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Flexibility in saturated fate allows the fat molecules to
pack together tightly
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what fat is Solid at room temp
saturated fat
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Unsaturated fatty acids
One or more double bonds with one fewer hydrogen atoms on each double bonded carbon
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fats that are liquid at room temp
Unsaturated fatty acids
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Fats of plants and fish are
Unsaturated fats
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is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
trans
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is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
unsaturated
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is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
saturated
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fat that is Liquid at room temperature
unsaturated fats
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Hydrogenated vegetable oil
1. Unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
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Hydrogenated vegetable oil produces
saturated fats and unsaturated fats with trans double bond
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essential fatty acids
unsaturated fatty acids are not synthesized in the
human body
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Phospholipids structure
two fatty acids and a phosphate group
are attached to glycerol
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1. Cells could not exists without this type of lipid
Phospholipids
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why are Phospholipids so essential
they are major part of cell membranes
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6. Two ends of the phospholipids show different behaviours toward the water
Hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic: excluded from water
The phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
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phospholipids in water lead to a
1. Self-assemble into double-layered structures called Bilayers
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• Steroids
Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton of four fused rings
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Cholesterol
component in animal cell membranes
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Most dynamic functions of living things depend on
proteins
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proteins account for ____ if dry mass of the cell
50%
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7 Protein functions
Speeding up (catalyzing) chemical reactions
• structural support
• storage
• transport
• cellular communications
• movement
• defence against foreign substances
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Enzymes
proteins regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts
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catalysts
a. Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being used up by the reaction
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Enzyme can preform function
over and over again
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Enzymatic proteins
Selective acceleration of chemical reactions
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Storage proteins
Storage of amino acids
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Hormonal proteins
Coordination of an organism’s activities
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Contractile and motor proteins
Movement
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Defensive proteins
Protection against disease
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Transport proteins
Transport of substances
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Receptor proteins
Response of cell to chemical stimuli
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Structural proteins
Support
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All proteins are polymers constructed from
the same set of 20
amino acids
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Peptide bonds
Bond between amino acids
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Polymer of amino acids
Polypeptide
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Amino Acid Monomers
An organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
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polypeptides are
unbranched
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Amino acids differ in their properties due to
differing side
chains, called R groups
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Amino acids with nonpolar side chains
hydrophobic
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Amino acids with polar side chains
hydrophilic
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Acid amino acids
negatively charged from a carboxyl group
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Basic amino acids
positively charged amino acids in side chain
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Acid and basic amino acids are
hydrophilic
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Amino acids are linked by
peptide bonds
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Peptide Bond
two amino acids are positioned so that the carboxyl group of one is adjacent to the amino group of the other, by dehydration reaction
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One end of the amino acid has a free
amino group
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One end of the amino acid has a free
carboxyl group
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the carboxyl group end of an amino acid
c terminal
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the amine group end of an amino acid
n terminal
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Chemical nature of the molecule is determined by the
kind and sequence of the side chains
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Protein function relies on
three-dimensional
architecture
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The what determines a protein’s three-dimensional
structure
The sequence of amino acids
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protein Function depends on ability to
recognize and bind to some other molecule
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Polypeptide and protein are synonyms
false
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4 levels of protein structure
a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. Tertiary
Quaternary
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Primary Structure of protein
protein's sequence of amino acids
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he precise primary structure of a protein is determined by the
inherited genetic information not random linking of amino acids
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Dictates secondary and tertiary structures
primary structures
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Secondary structure
The coils and folds within the polypeptide
chain
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Typical secondary structures
include
coil called an α-helix, and
• folded structure called a
β-pleated sheet
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The Beta pleated sheet
Two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side Connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the backbone
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a. The alpha helix
i. Delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every FOURTH amino acid
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Tertiary structure
1. The overall shape of a polypeptide from the interactions between side chains of the various amino acids
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One interaction that contributes to Tertiary structure
Hydrophobic interactions
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Hydrophobic interactions
polypeptide folds into its functional shape and the amino acids with hydrophobic side chains are usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein (out of water)
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Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between
R groups
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Disulphide bridges
1. Covalent bond that form where two cysteine monomers are brought close together by the folding of protein
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Quaternary Structure
Proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains aggregated into one functional macromolecule
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Sickle-Cell disease
1. Inherited blood disorder caused by the substitution of one amino acid for the normal one at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin
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Normal red blood cells are
: disk-shaped
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Sickle cell shape
sickle shape
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Example of Quaternary Structure
Collagen
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What determines protein structure
primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can
affect structure
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Folding normally occurs as the protein is being s
synthesized in the cell aided by other proteins
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Denaturation
protein unravels and loses its native shape
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the denatured protein is
inactive
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what cause a protein to denature, or unravel
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other
environmental factors
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Most proteins go through several intermediate structures before
reaching the stable shape
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Not simple to figure out the exact 3D structure of a protein as
a single protein molecule has 1000s of atoms
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some proteins do not have a 3D structure until they
interact with target protein or molecule
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why is flexibility is important for protein function
Might bind with different targets at different time
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X-Ray Crystallography
Used to determine 3D protein sturcture
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Nucleic Acid
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) enable
living organisms to reproduce complex components from one generation to next
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DNA provides
a. Directions for its own replication
b. Directs RNA synthesis
Through RNA controls protein synthesis
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genetic material that organisms inherit from parents
DNA
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DNA directs synthesis of -_____ that controls ______
mRNA and protein synthesis
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mRNA conveys
genetic instructions for builidng proteins from nucleus to cytoplasm
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Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers called
POLYNUCELOTIDEDS
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Each polynucleotide has monomers called a
nucleotides
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nucleotides have 3 parts
Nitrogen base
Five carbon sugar (pentose)
One or more phosphate group
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In a polynucleotide Each monomer has
1 phosphate group
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monomers in nucleic acid without any phosphate group
nucleoside
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Pyrimidine
six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
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Pyrimidine nucleiotides
a. Cytosine (C)
b. Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
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Purines nucleiotides
a. Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
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Purines are
larger with a six-membered ring fused to a five-member ring
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U only in
RNA
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T found only in
DNA
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A, G, C are found in
both DNA and RNA
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DNA the sugar is attached
to the deoxyribose
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RNA sugar is attached
ribose
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Linkage of nucleotides into a polynucleotide needs
dehydration reaction
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adjacent nucleotides are joined by
phosphodiester linkage
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phosphodiester linkage
a phosphate group that links the sugars of 2 nucleotides
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Sugar phosphate backbone built from
5 prime to 3 prime
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Bases are attached along the
backbone
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DNA has ___ strands that wind around and form a ____
two and double helix
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A pairs with
T
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G pairs with
C
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Two strands of the double helix are
complementary
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RNA is ____ strands
single
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RNA base pairs allow it
the 3D shape for its function
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what pair is not in RNA
t
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antiparallel
two backbones run in the opposite
5prime→ 3prime directions from each
other
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biologists sought to “decode” genes
uncovering their base sequences
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Bioinformatics
computational approaches to deal with the
data resulting from the sequencing of many genomes
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Genomics
analysis of large sets of genes, or
comparisons of whole genomes of different species
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Proteomics
analysis of large sets of proteins, including
their amino acid sequences
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DNA carries heritable info can document the
heredity background of organism
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Since nucleotides are appendages on the sugar-phosphate backbone, they aren’t what
Aren’t involved in the structure of the backbone
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3 major difference of rna and dna
1. Dna is double while rna is single stranded
2. DNA has thymine while rna has uracil
3. DNA has deoxyribose sugar while rna has ribose sugar
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Hydrogen bond are found where in the dna strand
Between two complementary nucleotides
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Covalent bonds in nucleotides are found
Holding the nucleotides to the backbone
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What is added on the 5’ chain
Phosphate group
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What is added to the 3’ end
5 carbone pentose sugar
