Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What is a stimulus?
A
Any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism.
2
Q
What was the first model of Memory?
A
The Multi-store Model
3
Q
What is the Duration for LTM?
A
Up to a lifetime.
4
Q
What is the capacity for LTM?
A
Unlimited.
5
Q
Who designed MSM and when was it introduced?
A
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
6
Q
Define Capacity
TRIGGER WORDS;
1. measure
What is it represented as?
A
The measure of how much can be held in memory. Usually represented as numbers.
7
Q
What are the case studies of the MSM?
- SW
- P&P
.3. Bhri
A
Shallice and Warrington
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Bahrick (1975)
8
Q
Define long-term memory (LTM)
A
Your memory of events that have occured in the past. This lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years.
9
Q
Define sensory register
A
The place where information is held at each of the senses.
10
Q
What is the coding of the STM?
A
Refers to the way in which information is changed and stored in memory.
The main type of coding = acoustic other codes do exist too.
(Baddeley study effects of acoustic and semantic encoding.)
11
Q
What is CODING
A
the way which the information is stored
12
Q
Define short-term memory (STM)
TRIGGER WORDS:
Immediate
Can disappear unless what?
A
Your memory for immediate events.
STM is measured in seconds and minutes. They disappear unless rehearsed.
13
Q
What are the 5 components of the sensory register?
A
- Echoic store (Sound)
- Haptic store (Touch)
- Iconic store (Visual)
- Gustatory store (Taste)
- Olfactory store (Smell)
14
Q
What is the capacity of the SR?
what is the quaility of info?
grande
A
Very large - info is unprocessed, highly detailed, ever-changing.
15
Q
What is the duration of the SR?
TRIGGER WORD:
- Limi
but varies
depending on type of info
A
Limited but varies not only between stores but within stores depending on the type of info held.
16
Q
What is the duration of STM?
30s
How could this be extented?
A
Up to a maximum of 30 seconds - can be extended through rehearsal (Maintenance rehearsal) of information.
17
Q
What is the capacity of STM?
pequeña
aproximatley how many items?
A
The limited capacity of between 5-9 items.
18
Q
What is Maintenance rehearsal?
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. repeption
what is the repetition of informaton keeps it in what
What does this not lead to?
A
The repetition of information keeps it in STM by constantly rehearsing it. This does not lead to the transfer of LTM.
19
Q
How does the Multi-store model (MSM) work?
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Detection
- enter
- transferred only is?
A
- Information is detected by the senses and enters the sensory register.
- The information enters the short term memory.
- Information from the short-term memory is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed.
20
Q
Define Duration
Measure before it is no longer
A
A measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available.
21
Q
Who researched STM capacity ?
A
Jacobs Miller
22
Q
Who researched the duration of LTM
A
Bahrick et al
23
Q
What were the results of Baddeley (1966) coding experiment
TRIGGER WORDS:
- similar
Does it make it easier or harder to recall?
did the meaning have little or more effect - sem similar
does it make it harder to recall
A
- STM : words that sound similar are harder to recall but the meaning had little effect
- LTM : semantically similar are harder to recall
24
Q
SEMANTIC MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS.
- Knowledge
- broadest
A
contains our knowledge of the world, including facts but in the broadest possible sense
25
EPISODIC MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Ability to
are these complex or simple?
and why? what do they require
effort
refers to our ability to recall events, they are quite complex as they are 'time-stamped' and require a conscious effort to recall
26
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Actions
but what does it not require?
Memory of actions of skills but don`t require a conscious effort to perform.
27
What did Baddeley (1966) investigate?
acoustic v semantic encoding
Immediate recall of acoustically sim and dis-sim
Semantically sim and dis-sim words
28
What is the order of the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
input - sensory register - attention - stm store - rehearsal - ltm store
29
Who researched the MSM?
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
30
What are the 4 components to the WMM ?
- central executive
- visuo-spactial sketchpad
- phonological loop (articulatory contol system) (phonological store)
- episodic buffer (added in 2000)
31
Who designed the WMM ?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
32
What is one strength, linked with different areas, about the WMM ?
- different ares of the brain are activated depending on the task
- Posner = PET scans, visual = posterior, auditory = lateral
- support research
33
What is another strength, linking to support evidence, about the WMM?
support evidence from dual task research
- hitch and Baddeley found performance decreased when participants had to do task that required the same slave systems.
- we can multitask if they require the same slave system e.g. articulatory and phonological
34
What is a weakness, about the ecological validity, of the WMM?
- lacks ecological validity
- research is lab-based - lacks mundane realism
- difficult to apply to everyday life
35
What is another weakness, to do with the central executive, about the WMM ?
- Not entirely clear how this component works - Vagueness allows it to explain most experimental findings
36
Define PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
Past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something
37
Define RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
Current attempts to learn something interfere with past learning
38
WHO STUDIED?
The effect the environment has on recall
(scuba-divers one)
Godden & Baddeley
39
What are the 4 parts to the Cognitive Interview
1. Report everything (RE)
2. Context Reinstatement (CR)
3. Recall in reverse order (RO)
4. Change perspective (CP)
40
WHO STUDIED?
The Weapon Focus Phenomenon
- the effect anxiety has on memory recall
Loftus & Burns – P’s shown violent film where a boy was shot in the face had less accurate EWT than those shown a non-violent version.
41
WHO STUDIED?
Real-life event
- Canada shooting
Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
42
WHO STUDIED?
Influence of leading questions & misleading questions
(car crash one)
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
43
WHO STUDIED?
| Post-event discussion
Gabbert et al. (2003)
44
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
involves both linking the information to knowledge already stored and repeating the information.
45
MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL?
The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information.
46
WHO STUDIED?
| Comparing Cognitive interviews to standard interviews
Geiselman et al (1985)
47
What is the WEAKNESS of the study of STM duration?
| - Brown; Peterson & Peterson
- They did not test duration, but rather displacement due to the counting backwards activity
- Trigram task is artificial and does not reflect everyday life - Low ecological validity - hard to generalise to other situations
48
What are the STRENGTHS of the study of LTM duration?
| - Bahrick et al
Unlike many memory experiments, this study used meaningful stimulus material (High-school yearbooks) and tested people for memories from their own lives
49
What is the STRENGTH of the research for MSM?
| - Glanzer & Cunitz
-
50
AO3 STM (The Size of chunks matters)
Simon (1974) found that people had shorter memory span for larger chunks such as 8 worded phrases, than smaller chunks such as one syllabull words
51
AO3 (The capacity of STM may be even more limited)
Cowan (2001) concluded that STM is likely to be limited to about 4 chunks. Which shows that STM may not be as extensive as we first thought. Research on the capcity of STM for visual information also found that 4 was about the limit.
52
Individual differeneces (STM)
The capcity of STM of the chunk affects how many chunks you can remeber. Jacob also found that recal increased steadily with age 8 year
53
Attention
If a person's attention is focused on one of the sensory stores, then the data is transferred to STM
54
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repetion keeps information in STM but eventually such repetion will create a LTM.
55
Retrieval
The process of getting information from LTM involves the information passing back through STM.
56
Strengths of MSM
- Lab studies eg Jacobs, Miller, Peterson & Peterson,Bahrick,Baddeley.
- Brain scans eg Beardsley linked STM to prefrontal cortex, squire et al. Linked LTM to hippoacampus.
- Case study of HM- Linked formation of new LTMs to hippocampus (Scoville and Milner).
57
Limitation MSM
MSM is too simple, STM and LTM are not unitary stores
| LTM involves elaborative rather than just maintenance rehearsal.
58
Further evaluation
STM not independant of LTM - Ruchkin et al. showed different brain activity for words and pseudo-words.
59
Strengths of WMM
- Hitch and Baddeley - P's slower when dual tasks (CE + CE and articulatory loop.) Demonstrates
60
Cases studies for the MSM?
| Shallice and Warrington
‘KF' brain damage from a motorcycle accident.
61
Case study on MSM
| Peterson and Peterson (1959)
To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented
62
Case study on MSM - Bahrick (1975)
To establish the existence of a very long-term (VLTM) and to see whether there was any difference between recognition and recall
63
The Working Memory Model (Baddely & Hitch 1974)
Suggests that STM is made up of the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffe
64
Central executive
Most important component and is responsible for monitoring and co-ordinating the operation of the slave systems.
65
Phonological Loop (PL)
Phonological Loop stores a limited number of sounds for brief periods. Has two components.
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Phonological store (inner ear), which allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period.
Articulatory control system (inner voice), which allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.
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66
Articulatory control system (inner voice)
Allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.
67
Phonological store (Inner ear)
Allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period.
68
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS)
A limited capacity, temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information.
69
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS): Logie (1995) VSS divided into:
1. Visual Cache – passive visual store
| 2. Inner scribe – visual rehearsal mechanism
70
Episodic Buffer
Integrates and manipulates material in working memory from different sources into chunks or episodes.
71
1. Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. offers better account of
WM offers better account of STM than MSM – not one store but several components.
72
2. Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Inclues verbal maintenance
WM includes verbal maintenance rehearsal as an optional process, rather than the only means to get info in STM.
73
3. Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. WM process
WM emphasises process – MSM emphasises structure.
74
4. Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
WM holds most recently
WM immediate memory holds most recently activated LTM – MSM treats STM as a way station to and from LTM.
75
Farah et al (1988) - KF
| SUPPORT WMM
studied a patient called KF who had been involved in a road accident. KF performed better on spatial tasks then visual imagery tasks. This suggests that the STM is made up of separate stores and that one store can work without interfering with the other.
76
What does Logie’s (1995) addition to WMM suggest
further suggest that the separate components are specialised for different modalities.
77
Eslinger & Damasio (1985)
WEAKNESS OF WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
studied patient EVR who had:
A cerebral tumour removed and performed well on reasoning tests suggesting CE was intact, yet performed poorly on decision making exercises suggesting the opposite.
78
Bunge et al ( Counter point) – using MRI scans found significantly more activation in dual task condition than in a single task condition.
What does this indicate
This indicates increased attention demands. Include methodological evaluation, validity, reliability, generalisation, representativeness.
79
What does the MSM explain?
Explains Memory as a Linear Structure and Process
80
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Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM
Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM
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Words with similar sounds were much harder to recall using STM than words with dissimilar sounds. Similarity of meaning had on a very sight detrimental effect on STM.
81
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Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM
Evidence for Semantic Encoding in LTM
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Recall was much worse for semantically similar words than for semantically dissimilar words. Recall from LTM was the same for acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar words
82
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Conclusion for (Baddeley 1966) - Coding in STM and LTM
LINK SENTENCE
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This suggests that STM relies heavily on acoustic encoding and LTM primarily makes use of semantic encoding.
83
AO3 Baddeley (1966) - Brandimote et al - Found evidence of acoustic encoding in LTM - Wickens found evidnece for semantic coding in STM
Found that P's used visual coding for visual task when prevented from using verbal rehearsal. Normal we translate visual codes into verbal code
84
Peterson & Peterson (1959) - Aim
To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented
85
Peterson & Peterson - Method
Each p's was given 2 practice trials followed by 8 trials
Time intervals for counting backwards were in 3s
P's shown a consonant trigram then asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified number to prevent them from rehearsing the consonant trigram.
86
4 Basic principles of cognitive interviews
- mental reinstatement
- report everything
- change order
- change perspective
