midterm Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
what are the defining characteristics of deviance?
A
violation of a social norm that is…
- socially recognized
- normative
- relativist
2
Q
what does malum in se mean?
A
wrong or evil in itself; essentialist view of deviance
3
Q
what does malum prohibitum mean?
A
- wrong because it is prohibited
- unlawful by virtue of statute
- relativist view of deviance
4
Q
does Becker’s “Outsiders” accept a malum in se or a malum prohibitum view?
A
- malum prohibitum
- relativist approach: believes the deviance is socially constructed
5
Q
according to Becker’s “Outsiders” (1963), what is deviance?
A
- socially constructed - deviance is what society labels it to be
- failure to obey rules and the consequences/ sanctions that follow
6
Q
according to Becker’s “Outsiders” (1963), what makes deviance political?
A
deviance is characterized by a failure to obey rules, and rule-setting always involves a power dynamic, and is therefore a political action
7
Q
does Costello (2006) support a relativist or essentialist view of deviance? how so?
A
- essentialist
- there is an overarching idea of deviance based on the harm that a behaviour causes
8
Q
what are the main critiques of Costello’s “cultural relativism and the study of deviance” (2006)?
A
- gap between theory and empirical analysis
- lack of cross-cultural comparisons
- uses only one case study
- alt interpretation of results (eg. concern with extramarital sex may be due to religious context in the US)
- is homosexuality really normative? it is still considered highly deviant in many places
- “facts” and cultural diversity
- lack of historical insight
9
Q
what is the main thesis of Costello’s “cultural relativism and the study of deviance” (2006)?
A
- denounces cultural relativism and blames the demise of the sociology of deviance on its prevalence in the discipline
- argues that deviant behaviour is universally evaluated in terms of the harm that it causes
- what is considered harmful is based on victimhood, not political ideology
- eg. adultery is more deviant than homosexuality
10
Q
what is the thesis of Goffman’s “the presentation of the self in everyday life” (1969)?
A
- our daily interactions follow the same patterns as a theatre performance (“dramaturgical analysis”)
- we engage in impression management
- serves to help us maintain norms
11
Q
what is a dramaturgical analysis? who’s work employs this perspective?
A
- analyzing daily interactions in terms of a theatre show or performance
- Goffman: “the presentation of self in everyday life”
12
Q
according to Goffman’s “The Presentation of Everyday Life”, how are norms maintained?
A
- our social interactions strive to create and maintain a particular image of the self
- this impression management is a moral obligation to society
- all parties work for this representation to succeed
13
Q
in Goffman’s “The Presentation of the Self in Everyday life”, how do our modern social interaction differ from in the past?
A
- there is no more backstage: Goffman believes that people’s guards are always up
- we live in a society of complete scrutiny
14
Q
according to Goffman’s “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”, what is the difference between cynical and naive role-playing?
A
- cynical role-playing: when actors are aware that they’re playing a role
- naive role playing: when actors identify with the role and forget that it is something that they are playing
15
Q
according to Colin Sumner, why did deviance “die”?
A
deviance couldn’t generate a core group of general theories due to…
1. the discipline’s relativist view (which focused on the situational nature of deviance), and
2. its related attempts to explain behaviours through the lens of legality (which then became criminology)
16
Q
according to Miller, Wright, and Dannels (2001), is the sociology of deviance dead? why or why not?
A
- (like Goode) the pure study of the sociology of deviance may have declined since the late 70s, but saying it is “dead” is an exaggeration
- the deviance perspective (notably its social constructionist thinking) continues to hold influence in various fields, including criminology, feminism, postmodernism, etc.
17
Q
according to Goode (2002), is the sociology of deviance dead? why or why not
A
- (like miller et al) the sociology of deviance has declined in theoretical vitality since 60s/70s, but has an enduring legacy in terms of influence in other fields
- (unlike miller et al) criminology has not replaced the sociology of deviance, it is just its most dominant sub-discipline
18
Q
according to Goode (2002), why has the sociology of deviance seen a decline since the 70s?
A
the postivist-constructionist split has greatly contributed to the fall of a coherent “sociology of deviance” field of study
19
Q
what is the statistical view of deviance?
A
anything that varies too much from the mean or median is deviant
20
Q
what is the pathological view of deviance?
A
- deviance is what causes an organism, institution, or society to become wrought with disease or to behave in an unhealthy or inefficient way
- relevant mostly to the medical field
21
Q
what is the functionalist view of deviance?
A
requires us to discriminate between features of a society which promote stability and those which disrupt stability
22
Q
according to Goffman’s “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”, what is performance disruption? what are its consequences?
A
performance disruption = acting in a way that is incompatible with one’s facade of the self
consequences occur at three levels:
1. personality (impacts to one’s ego and sense of self)
2. interaction (eg. feelings of embarrassment as convo comes to a halt)
3. social structure (repercussions for one’s reputation)
23
Q
according to William Sumner, what are the two types of norms? what are their characteristics?
A
- mores: norms that carry great importance in our lives (strictly observed, substantial social sanction, often grounded in formal laws)
- folkways: norms for routine and casual daily interaction (lesser social sanctions, often unspoken)
24
Q
according to Garfinkel, what is ethnomethodology?
A
- the study of the methods and norms used to produce social order
- includes breaching experiments
25
what was Stanley Milgram's subway experiment?
- example of a breaching experiment
- asking people for their seat on the metro; three conditions (no justification, trivial justification, overheard conversation)
- grad students were unable to carry out the experiment out of fear of mild social embarrassment
26
what was/were the main goal(s) of Fox's "Watching the English" (2004)?
- identify the common unspoken rules that people follow in British society, and how these define national identity
- examine how new forms of communication technology require the formation of a new set of social norms/rules
27
describe the theological (demonological) approaches to deviance and crime
- belief that people are deviant because they are possessed by demons/satan, causing them to act against God's wishes
- met with intense physical sanctions involving making the body uncomfortable for the spirit (torture, skinning, burning, etc)
- deviance is fatalistic: people can't control their behaviour, as it is based on possession or predestination
28
when/where were the theological/demonological approaches to deviance and crime popular?
- middle ages -> renaissance
- Western (European/Judo-Christian)
29
broadly describe the classical approaches to deviance and crime
- committing a crime is a rational choice
- minor crimes were met with fines, while serious crimes were met with execution
- rehabilitation is not an option
- severe sanctions were thought to deter people from committing crimes
- like the theological approaches, classical approaches are fatalistic, metaphysical, and leave no room for alternative theories
30
when were the classical approaches to deviance and crime popular?
- starting during Enlightenment (18th century)
- neoclassical approaches still exist today (eg. rational choice theory)
31
what were the main points of Cesare Beccaria's "Essays on Crime and Punishment" (1764)? what theoretical approach did he use?
- classical approach
- people are rational, have full control over their behaviours, and have full responsibility and accountability for their actions
32
according to Jeremy Bentham, what were the guiding principles of punishment? what theoretical approach to deviance and crime did he use?
- classical approach
1. swift
2. certain (no consideration for special cases/intention)
3. severe
33
describe Cohen and Felson (1979)'s routine activity theory. what type of theoretical approach do they use?
- neoclassical approach
- people are more likely to commit crimes when there is a...
1. motivated offender
2. suitable target
3. absence of fear of punishment
34
who founded the school of early biological positivism? when?
Cesare Lombroso, 1876
35
what is criminal anthropology? what theoretical approach does it use?
- scientific investigation of the relationship between physical characteristics and criminal behaviour (eg. phrenology)
- biological (positivist) approach
- based in racial superiority perspectives
36
who invented phrenology?
Franz Joseph Gall
37
what is atavism? who pioneered it?
- idea that physiological resemblance to earlier stages in human evolution has impacts on criminal behaviour
- Cesare Lombroso
38
what did Lombroso seek to explain in his book "The Born Criminal"? what were his conclusions? what theoretical approach to crime and deviance did he subscribe to?
- biological positivist approach; influenced by Darwinism
- examined the physical characteristics of 840 criminals to see what aspects of appearance were linked to deviant behaviour
- believed that criminals suffer from lower levels of physical development, which is linked to lower levels of moral development
39
what were the 4 body types outlined by William Sheldon in the "Atlas of Men"? what were the associated characteristics? which theoretical approach to crime and deviance does this follow?
1. endomorph: overweight with large stomach; tolerant and likes people
2. mesomorph: athletic and muscular; aggressive, competitive, fearless, risk-taking
3. ectomorph: thin and fragile; artistic and introverted
4. balanced: average build; without special traits
- biological approach
40
according to Sheldon's "Atlas of Men", which class of men are most commonly linked to criminal behaviour?
- mesomorph: athletic and muscular
- tend to be aggressive, competitive, fearless, and risk-taking
41
what are the main critiques of Sheldon's "Atlas of Men" constitutional theory?
- most people don't maintain the same body type across their lifetime
- alt explanation: more propensity to commit crimes in early adulthood + more common to have athletic body type at that age
- subjective assessment issue: more muscular men may be perceived by law enforcement as being more capable of physical aggression
42
list the modern biological explanations for crime and deviance
1. chemical imbalance (hyperclycaemia)
2. genetic influence
3. neuropsychological factors
4. sociobiology (evolutionary psychology)
43
what chemicals/chemical imbalances are found to be positively linked to criminal tendency, according to modern biological explanations of crime and deviance?
- hyperglycaemia (high blood sugar)
- arsenic and lead in water/food supply
44
what are the 4 possible genetic explanations for criminal behaviour?
1. criminal parents tend to have criminal children (twin/adoption studies show greater influence of bio parent's criminal tendencies than adoptive parent)
2. XYY "supermale" chromosome associated with greater physical stature, higher testosterone levels, and more aggressive behaviour
3. MAO-A gene deficiency is associated with antisocial behaviour when paired with adverse environmental outcomes
45
what are 5 neuropsychological factors that may influence criminal behaviour?
1. slower brainwave activity is associated with violent behaviour
2. orbito-frontal cortex (impulsivity control/reward) and amygdala (fear/emotions) abnormalities may be indicators of psychopathic behaviour
3. fetal alcohol syndrome -> poor judgement -> more likely to be both criminals and victims
4. ADHD associated with later delinquency
5. poor fear conditioning (due to amygdala and ventral prefrontal cortex dysfunction) in children associated with criminal behaviour in adults
46
what is the main thesis of Thornhill and Palmer's "Why Men Rape"?
- rape is a natural evolutionary strategy that developed to help some men spread their genes
- rape is mostly about sexual desire, not power relations
- men have more interest in pursuing a great variety of sexual partners without commitment
47
what empirical evidence do Thornhill and Palmer use to support their argument in "Why Men Rape"?
1. rape takes in many non-human animals
2. most rape victims are of reproductive age
3. most rape victims are not murdered after
4. married women and women of childbearing age suffer more as a result of rape
5. in many cultures rape is treated as a crime against the victim's husband
6. rape victims suffer less emotional distress when subjected to more violence
48
what policy recommendations do Thornhill and Palmer provide in "Why Men Rape"?
1. women should be more careful
2. men should be educated about the fact that rape is natural so that they can learn to control it
49
what are the 7 main critiques of Thornhill and Palmer's "Why Men Rape"?
1. distorted depiction of feminist theories: the vast majority of scholars do acknowledge the sexual aspect of rape, while emphasizing that power/rage/fear is more important (T +P choose to ignore these dominant theories)
2. T+P provide no evidence for an actual genetic/psychological mechanism that would be responsible for men's innate desire to rape (no evidence that rape increases chances of gene transmission--today, dedicated lovers are most successful in that regard)
3. extrapolation from lower species/biological reductionism (their ability to consent is different from humans)
4. unsupported claim that rape is universal (some countries have very low rates of rape, especially places with greater women's rights and political empowerment)
5. alt explanations: women of reproductive age are most likely to be raped because they are actively dating, more likely to report than children, and come from same age group as rapists
6. intentional misrepresentation of data (no dif between older and younger women in terms of suffering; childhood victim data was collected from third-party estimation)
7. oppressive political recommendations that place the onus of preventing rape on women
50
when was the biological approach to crime and deviance most popular
- late 19th-early 20th century
- saw a recent re-emergence with attention to social context and risk factors
51
according to Rocque et al (2012) in "biosocial criminology and modern crime prevention", what are the 4 major strategies for classifying crime prevention programs?
1. developmental prevention (designed to prevent development of criminal potential; gives rise to concerns regarding neo-eugenics)
2. community prevention (designed to change social conditions and institutions that influence offending in residential communities)
3. situational prevention (designed to prevent crime occurrence by reducing opportunities and increasing risk and difficulty of offending)
4. criminal justice prevention (traditional deterrent, incapacitative, and rehabilitative strategies operated by law enforcement agencies)
52
what are the two hypotheses for the evolutionary basis of rape put forth by Thornhill and Palmer?
1. rape as a reproductive strategy: some men have succeeded in passing on their genes through rape, thus perpetuating the behaviour
2. rape as a side effect of other sexual adaptations (eg. strong male sex drive, greater capacity for impersonal sex, desire to mate with a variety of women)
53
who pioneered the psychological approach to deviance and delinquency? when was it popular?
- Freud
- first half of 20th century
54
according to the psychological approach, why does deviance exist?
deviance is the result of a deficiency or abnormality at the level of our personality. can occur in a few ways:
1. superego is too weak -> aggression
2. superego is too strong and collapses -> psychosis
3. superego is too strong but does not break down -> neurosis
55
what does Freud mean when he says that human personality is a closed energy system? what does this have to do with his theory of deviance?
- humans have natural biological drives and urges that push us to behave in certain ways
- this pent-up energy must released in one way or another
- deviance results from energy being released in unhealthy ways or from unresolved tensions
56
describe the stages in Freud's psychosexual theory of development
1. oral stage (1-1.5 years)
2. anal stage (2-3 y)
3. phallic stage (4-6 y)
4. latency stage (6-12 y)
5. genital stage (12+)
57
according to Freud, what are the three possible outcomes that can arise from fixation during the phallic stage of psychosexual development?
1. oedipus complex (castration anxiety)
2. electra complex (penis envy)
3. phallic character
58
what are the 5 main critiques of Freud?
1. most of the assumptions are speculative and non-scientific/non-falisifiable
2. the theory is largely post hoc
3. assumption that women are incomplete people
4. lack of sensitivity to cultural variations
5. no empirical support for the psychosexual theory and adult fixation
59
according to more modern psychological explanations for crime and deviance, what are some mental disorders found to be associated with criminal behaviour?
1. schizophrenia
2. psychosis
3. ASPD
4. BPD
60
according to Ali and Naylor's research on intimate partner violence (IPV) (2013), what are the possible psychological factors associated with violent behaviour in relationships?
1. personality disorders
2. disturbed attachment
3. anger/hostility
4. low self-esteem
5. drug/alcohol abuse
5. poor communication skills
61
according to Ali and Naylor's research on IPV (2013), what are some possible biological factors that contribute to violent behaviour in relationships?
1. head injury
2. neurotransmitter levels (high testosterone, low serotonin)
3. genetics (explains 15-20% of variance)
62
what is the thesis of Bem's "Exotic becomes Erotic" (1996)?
- biological variables (genes, prenatal hormones, brain neuroanatomy) code for childhood temperaments that influence a child's preferences for sex-typical/atypical activities and peers
- these preferences lead children to feel different from opposite/same sex peers, dictating their sexual attraction based on which group they are least similar to/familiar with
63
what are the three theories proposed by Bem (1996) as to why dissimilarity/unfamiliarity to a specific gender predicts sexual orientation?
1. extrinsic arousal effect (sexual attraction stems from nonspecific arousal in relation to the foreign, that is then projected on the person at hand)
2. opponent process theory (the human body has a tendency to cancel out various effects to return to homeostasis; if this process is evoked repeatedly, then eventually the opponent response becomes the dominant reaction; explains how being ostracized by a specific gender leads to sexual attraction)
3. imprinting (sexual imprinting establishes an attraction to an entire class of individuals--who are exotic but not overly so--during the sensitive period of middle-childhood, after which attraction becomes stable)
64
what evidence does Bem use to support his point in "Exotic Becomes Erotic" (1996)?
1. San Francisco survey: gay people reported feeling differently from people of their own sex
2. San Francisco survey: gay people had a larger number of childhood friends from the opposite sex
3. studies in Taiwan, Israel, and New Guinea: close association in childhood reduces sexual attraction in adulthood
65
what are 3 main critiques of Bem's "Exotic becomes Erotic" (1996)?
1. questionable empirical support (most gay people had many friends of same sex, reliance on retrospective reporting, siblings' male/female ratios don't predict homosexuality, shaky cross-cultural evidence)
2. selection as an alt explanation: maybe people who "felt different" as a result of their sexuality were more likely to associate with people of the opposite sex
3. misrepresentation of women's experiences (lesbians form relationships based on intimacy and familiarity, non-conformity is a different experience for boys and girls)
66
what are the 4 main critiques of the psychological approaches to crime and deviance?
1. post-hoc diagnosis and circular reasoning
2. establishing time order is difficult
3. failure to account for learning procedures
4. there is no set of personality traits shared by all deviant or all non-deviant people
67
what are the main findings of Gao et al's "Association of Poor Childhood Fear Conditioning and Adult Crime" (2010)?
- amygdala dysfunction and ventral prefrontal cortex dysfunction -> poor fear conditioning -> predisposition to criminal behaviour
- early health interventions/prenatal health education programs are necessary to treat and prevent worldwide behaviour problem
68
what is poor fear conditioning? according to Gao et al (2010) how does it occur? what are its consequences?
- lack of fear of socializing punishments due to absence of anxiety or anticipatory fear when considering committing an antisocial or rule-breaking act
- i.e., lack of conscience
- amygdala dysfunction + ventral prefrontal cortex dysfunction -> poor fear conditioning -> predisposition to criminal behaviour
69
according to Kolla and Bortolato (2020), what is the best-documented gene implicated in criminal behaviour?
MAO-A (deficiency is associated with aggressive, antisocial or violent behaviour)
70
what is the best-documented gene-environment interaction in the study of aggression?
MAO-A deficiency + early life adversity
71
what is the strongest predictor of congenital MAO-A deficiency?
prenatal smoke exposure
72
according to Martin et al (2019), what trait is strongly associated with recidivism? what disorder it often closely tied to? how so?
- impulsive aggression
- closely tied to ASPD
- psychopathy (the central trait of ASPD) is characterized by meanness, disinhibition, and boldness
73
under the Triarchic model, what are the three dimensions that characterized psychopathy?
meanness
disinhibition
boldness
74
when was the golden era of functionalism?
1930s-60s
75
what are the three main elements of the functionalist approach?
- maintenance of equilibrium
- harmony
- evolution
76
according to Durkeheimian functionalism, what are the functions of deviance?
1. confirmation of social and cultural values
2. reaffirmation of social boundaries (distinguishing wrong vs right)
3. increasing social solidarity (among non-deviant group)
4. establishing social change
77
according to Durkheim, what is the main non-productive form of deviance? why
- suicide
- seen as a sign of a lack of social cohesion
78
what did Durkheim theorize is the leading factor determining suicide rates of particular social groups?
level of integration: the lower level of cohesion within a group, the higher the suicide rate
79
what are the main critiques of the functionalist approach to deviance?
1. circular explanations (tautology)
2. often not falsifiable
3. can we really say that crime increases solidarity? many neighbourhoods with high crime rates have less efficacy and less social cohesion
4. rigid view of societies as holistic and monolithic (ignoring sub-cultures)
80
what is the main thesis of Merton's strain theory?
strain is caused by the disparity between personal goals and personal means, which leads to criminal behaviour
81
what are the 5 outcomes presented in strain theory?
1. conformity (accepting goals and having the means to achieve them)
2. innovation (accepting goals but lacking means to achieve them)
3. ritualism (abandoning the cultural goals of success/wealth but continuing to use legitimate means to make a living)
4. retreatism (giving up on both the cultural goals and the legitimate means to attain them)
5. rebellion (rejection of both goals and means in favour of other goals and means)
82
what are the critiques of strain theory?
1. influenced by specific historical events
2. assumptions of rationality and well-calculated decision making
3. there is no universal set of norms/goals
4. time order and confusing cause and effect
5. focuses on the lower socio-economic classes
83
according to Robert Agnew's general strain theory, what are the three types of negative relationships?
1. with people who prevent goal achievement
2. with people who remove positive stimuli
3. with people who present a negative stimuli
84
according to Robert Agnew's general strain theory, which three types of strain are most likely to result in deviance?
1. strain that is considered unjust
2. strain that is especially strong
3. strain in situations where there is a lack of perceived control
85
according to Marxist conflict theory, what is the difference between the infrastructure and the superstructure?
- infrastructure: the basic relations of economic production and the means of production
- superstructure: the social institutions that help the bourgeoisie maintain their power position
86
According to Spitzer's critical theory of deviance, who is considered deviant?
1. those who challenge private ownership
2. those who cannot or refuse to work
3. some of those who abuse substances
4. those who disobey authority
5. those who actively fight against the capitalist ideology and current world order
87
according to Spitzer, what are the two types of problematic populations? how should we control them?
1. social junk: unproductive people that are costly but passive and relatively harmless; control through containment and regulation (eg. mental institutions, shelters)
2. social dynamite: youthful, alienated, and politically volatile; control though rapid, focused, and highly repressive measures (eg. legal and carceral systems)
88
according to Marxist thought, what is the significance of the welfare state in the context of deviance?
- welfare state exists to control the problematic populations that jeopardize the social order
- eg. education/schools, which socialize people into becoming part of the productive work force
89
what are the contradictions of capitalism, according to Marxist thought?
- capitalism requires increased productivity to survive, though increased productivity is only made possible by raising the ratio of machines to men
- in this sense, more and more workers become redundant
90
according to Spitzer, what options exist when it becomes too costly to take care of problematic populations?
1. normalization of deviance
2. conversion (taking criminal populations and making them the first line of law and order)
3. organized crime (which provides services that the state does not, i.e., clientelism; engages in violent activities that are not directed toward the state)
4. containment (segregation of problematic populations into geographically closed regions)
91
what are the 5 main critiques of Marxist approaches to deviance?
1. largely non-falsifiable
2. fails to recognize that criminal activities hurt the lower class the most
3. tough to explain "hard violence"
4. communist societies still have crime/deviance
5. most people in western societies are in the middle class--the idea of two populations in struggle is outdated in Western society
92
what are the four main aspects of feminist approaches to deviance?
1. critiquing androcentric theories of women's deviance
2. critiquing naturalistic views about gender/sex
3. spotlighting women's victimology
4. studying the culture of masculinity and violence
93
how does labelling theory manifest in Tannenbaum's "Dramatization of Evil"?
- continuous disapproval of an act eventually becomes disapproval of a person who commits the act (i.e., "tagging" or stigmatization)
- looking glass self: people are who they think others think they are
94
how does labelling theory manifest in Becker's "Outsiders"?
- argues that social power plays a significant role in defining and labelling deviance
- looks at how societies define and react to deviance
95
what is pre-labelling, according to Cicourel?
- presenting in a certain way may draw more attention from law enforcement officials
- eg. white youth were less likely than youth of colour to be identified as a potential threat by law enforcement
96
how does labelling theory manifest in Edward Lemert's "The Process of Labelling"?
- primary deviance: small acts of rule breaking that many of us engage in - prompts mild social reaction and has no effect on self-image
- secondary deviance: when one internalizes a deviant identity, integrating it into their self-image (results in retrospective labelling from others, and affects a person's social networks and behaviours, often creating a self-fulfilling prophecy)
97
what are the four main critiques of labelling theory?
1. doesn't explain why deviance happens in the first place
2. doesn't explain how we account for severe or violent crime
3. not enough attention to deviance in adulthood and its long-term effects
4. questionable empirical support (claims labelling always has a negative effect, but studies show that it can serve as a wakeup call)
98
what is re-integrative shaming?
- Braithwaite
- idea that labelling can sometimes serve as a wake-up call to people, leading to a reduction in deviant behaviour
99
according to control theory, what is the difference between formal and informal control
- formal: control that is regulated by laws and the legal system
- informal: control that takes place through interaction with other people
100
what is Reckless' containment theory?
people have two types of commitment...
1. external: to people and institutions
2. inner: a willingness to follow social norms and expectations
101
according to Hirschi's social bonds theory, what are the four components of bonding?
1. attachment
2. commitment
3. involvement
4. belief
102
what are the 4 main critiques of control theory?
1. basic assumption that all of us are motivated commit deviant acts
2. assumption of underlying rationality
3. hard to account for deviant acts by those who are highly connected to others and have a lot to lose
4. mixed empirical support
103
what were the main findings of Sutherland's "Principles of Criminology"? what theory did they draw from?
- comparing crime rates among first- and second-generation immigrants, he found the rates were significantly higher among the second-generation
- concluded that deviant behaviours and justifications were socialized/learned through association with deviant peer groups
- draws from differential association theories
104
according to Sykes and Matza's "Delinquency and Drift" which draws from differential association theories, what are the 4 neutralization techniques proposed by the authors?
1. denial of responsibility
2. denial of the injury/victim
3. condemnation of the condemners
4. appealing to higher loyalties
105
according to Karandinos' "Moral Economy of Violence in the US Inner City", what were the primary reasons for violence in North Philadelphia?
- stemming from preferential access to scarce resources in a limited territory
- violence as a gift in a context of lacking state mechanisms and regulation (offers protection)
- violence as a performance to indicate employability
106
what are the main ideas behind learning theory?
1. deviance is learned
2. we learn deviance in the same way that we learn normative behaviours: through interactions
3. learning is done in intimate groups
4. we learn both techniques of deviance and attitudes/rationalizations
5. there is a competition between deviant and non-deviant behaviours and norms
107
what are the 4 main critiques of learning theories?
1. doesn't pay enough attention to individual characteristics and personal choices
2. focus on lower-working-class, male, urban adolescents
3. time order and causality issue
4. importance of complementary explanations
108
what is collective efficacy?
- capacity of informal social control and social cohesion
- relies on the link between mutual trust and the shared willingness to intervene for the public good
- in poor neighbourhoods, it acts as a buffer for crime
