midterm 2

Question 1

describe the Estate of Amun

Answer 1

City of Thebes was home to cult of Amun-Ra, a solar deity known as the king of the gods and source of fertility
temples of Amun built at Karnak in 18th century
festivals to show proper rule and keeping balance (Festival of Opet)

Question 2

what is Karnak

Answer 2

a purpose built complex of temples and religious structures on the edge of Thebes; temples of Amun built in 18th dynasty

Question 3

describe the temples of Amun

Answer 3

built in Karnak outside Thebes
mud brick walls to keep out populace
meant to nurture gods with offerings
pylons at front have scenes of kings conquering enemies by the gods
cattle, mineral rights, grain storage facilities

Question 4

describe the valley of the kings

Answer 4

Estate of Amun extends to western bank of Nile into Valley of the Kings
in 18th dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep (~1505 BC) was buried in secret rock-cut tombs in valley of kings
near valley of queens, with tombs of princes and court officials

Question 5

who is Hatshepsut

Answer 5

18th dynasty pharaoh, daughter of Thutmoses I
God’s wife of Amun, the highest ranking priestess of the Amun cult
married Thutmoses II who died 3 years later
had daughter Neferure
co-regent with Thutmoses III, son Thutmoses II had with another wife, until 5th year where she removed him and ruled from there
had diabetes and bone cancer at death (died at 50)

Question 6

describe the reign of Hatshepsut

Answer 6

crowned herself as ruler in her 5th year as co-regent, removing her co-regent Thutmoses III
claimed her father put her as successor and that Amun took her father’s appearance at her conception, so she is Amun’s daughter
replaced courtiers with those loyal to her
prosperous reign, built monuments in Karnak, brought luxury goods from other nations
after her death, Thutmoses III took throne and aggressively wiped her from history (chipped name from monuments, defaced images etc)

Question 7

describe the expedition to punt

Answer 7

recorded at Deir el-Bahari, a workers village
land fabled for gold, ebony, animals, myrrh incense, etc
expedition led by Senenmut, a consort of Hatshepsut
mutual relations
egyptians recorded flora, fauna, and people of the region

Question 8

describe Thutmose III

Answer 8

co-regent with Hatshepsut, removed after 5th year, came back after her death and attempted to wipe her from history
called greatest ruler of New Kingdom, compared to Napoleon
trade with Nubia, Aegeans, Crete, Phoenicia
continued traditional royal patronage of arts and religion; commissioned art to glorify himself and the gods
50 year rule

Question 9

who is Akhenaten

Answer 9

pharaoh who started the Amarna period (moved capital to Amarna, living in fortified palace separate from community)
coronated at Karnak by priests of Amun; married sister Nefertiti
in 5th year of reign, broke power of priests of Amun and made cult of the sun god Aten the state religion; declared himself and Nefertiti to be gods, remove mention of Amun from monuments

Question 10

describe the rule of Akhenaten

Answer 10

in 5th year of reign, shifted power from cult of Amun to cult of Aten, a quasi-monotheistic cult that banned worship of the old gods (most couldn’t access cult of Aten so they kept worshipping other gods anyway)
moved capital to Amarna, living in fortified palace separate from community; called Amarna period; developed new art and architectural styles
ignored foreign policy and requests for help (eg King of Byblos sent over 50 letters, ended up conquered); lost control of Near East and hampered trade

Question 11

who is tutankhamun

Answer 11

aka king tut
son of akhenaten, advisors had him reinstate cult of Amun
abandoned Amarna, moving to Thebes and Memphis
empire crumbled, with Hittites defeated their allies the Mitanni
died at ~20, leaving no heirs; power taken by the vizier Ay and then the general Horemheb who stabilized the nation

Question 12

describe the Ramesside dynasty

Answer 12

19th dynasty, 1295-1186 BC
started with Ramesses I, 2 year rule after Horemheb
grandson Ramesses II aka Ramesses the Great defeated hittites in battle of Kadesh, used nubian gold to rebuild, build temple of Abu Simbel

Question 13

describe the battle of Kadesh

Answer 13

Kadesh was a city in Syria, trade hub held by the Hittites
Ramesses II vs King Muwatalli II
best documented battle in ancient near east; both claimed victory, likely a draw
Ramesses led division too quickly and was isolated against Hittite army; Egypt claimed he led a heroic battle until his army arrived
Egyptians caught between river and Hittite forces, rallied troops for successful defence
resulted in treat of Kadesh, the first bilateral peace treaty; both states diminished

Question 14

describe Abu Simbel

Answer 14

site with temples built by Ramesses II
walls depict him winning battle of Kadesh and killing a hittite warrior, with other hittite warriors being subdued
built near Nubia to show dominance of Egypt

Question 15

describe the climate of the Indus Valley

Answer 15

outside of monsoon belt
arid/semi-arid environment with climatic extremes
floods b/w June/Sept after monsoon rains and snow melting in Himalayas

Question 16

where were indus valley settlements located

Answer 16

spread out along rivers/tributaries, built above highest flood level

Question 17

describe subsistence in the indus valley

Answer 17

floodplain has desert environment; farmers built irrigation canals to water fields
floodplain lacks minerals or metals, so trade is needed, but was forested and has sources of clay and salt

Question 18

describe the discovery of Harrapan civilization

Answer 18

not widely known until 20th century
1856; british engineers building East India Railroad through Punjab and needed ballast; used burnt mudbrick from Harrapan sites
1st systemic excavations in 1920s

Question 19

describe the origins of agriculture in the indus valley

Answer 19

debated if it was introduced or started independently
many domesticated plants/animals were possibly introduced from elsewhere
Zebu (humped cattle) domesticated in south asia
cotton domestication thought to be local

Question 20

describe Mehrgarh

Answer 20

earliest neolithic site in NW india
7000-2600 BC
near Bolan Pass in Balochistan; trade route b/w indus valley and afghanistan
mobile pastoral–>agricultural
initial settlements were aceramic (no pottery)

Question 21

describe the settlement structures of Mehrgarh

Answer 21

1st 1k years of initial settlement; mud brick houses with 4 divisions in a defined orientation, suggesting social organization

after 3500 BC, community broke into small dense units connected by irrigation canals

Question 22

describe the burial patterns of Mehrgarh

Answer 22

pit burials and brick lined tombs
dead often buried in fetal-like position on side with grave goods such as bitumen lined baskets, bone/stone tools, bangles, stone ornaments, shell beads
oldest lost wax technique for casting copper into wheel amulet shown
some animal sacrifices, largely goats

Question 23

describe craft production in Mehrgarh

Answer 23

communal buildings for grain storage; this helps sustain full time craft specialists
made faience beads, female figurines, first button seals for ownership and sealing goods (similar to those in mesopotamia, made of bones and ceramics with geometric patterns)
had updraft kilns and large pit kilns for pottery

Question 24

describe the fall of mehrgarh

Answer 24

centuries long reorganization; after 3500 BC broke up into small densely packed units connected by irrigation canals
site abandoned by 2600 BC when major Harappan cities emerged

Question 25

describe mohenjo-daro

Answer 25

largest mature harappan city (120 hectares) 40k-80k people grid like plan; municipal supervision high 12m citadel in west protected by burnt brick fortification with towers

Question 26

describe the city planning of mohenjo-daro

Answer 26

'lower town' surrounds the citadel planned streets and alleys; 9m wide roads, cross streets half as wide and unpaved houses built in 5 designs of mud brick, 2-3 stories tall wealthier homes had central courtyard for guests and making food, also bathing areas and flushable toilets connected to sewer system poorer people may have had single room tenements/workshops had standardized fired bricks (waterproof); needs considerable organization

Question 27

describe the Harappan writing system

Answer 27

undeciphered script of pictographs logosyllabic; symbols are seemingly sounds and words read right to left early as 2800 BC, most from mature Harappan (2500-2050 BC) argued to represent ancient dravidian or sanskrit daily writing possibly done on ola leaves

Question 28

what findings suggest bureaucratic oversight in Harappan civilizations

Answer 28

standard weights and measures used seals, weights, writing, long distance exchange all suggest economic bureaucracy standardized bricks; same size of sun dried and fired bricks used in multiple cities; considerable organization needed to make these

Question 29

describe the harappan political and social order

Answer 29

don't fit theoretical models; unknown if settlements were independent city states or if it was one territorial state no temples, palaces, elite monuments, elite burials unpretentious middle class of merchants and officials emphasized modesty, order, and cleanliness no sign of rulers except one limestone figure that may have been revered

Question 30

describe the end of harappan civilization

Answer 30

several century decline starting around 1900 BC trade collapses with near east, demise of Sarasvati river from tectonic change climate change to drought in valley forest clearance for farmland and brick firing may have caused soil erosion and thus uncontrolled flooding late period has decline in urban populations; indus script stops

Question 31

describe the two major river valleys in ancient china

Answer 31

Huanghe (Yellow) river in north; flows through region of loess soil that is dry and permeable; cold winters; drought resistant millet farming Yangtze river in south; warmer and better watered, milder winters and hot summers; rice cultivated in waterlogged fields; contains Hemudu site both have evidence of agriculture origins and early state development

Question 32

name the Huanghe river cultures in order

Answer 32

yellow river cultures in order: Peiligang, Yangshao, Longshan cultures, potentially mythical Xia state (Erlitou), then Shang dynasty

Question 33

describe the Peiligang culture

Answer 33

7000-5000 BC earliest neolithic culture in Huanghe river valley in northern china domesticated broomcorn, foxtail millets grew chinese cabbage sites have bones of domesticated pigs, dogs, fowl, also wild animals/plant foods

Question 34

describe the Yangshao culture

Answer 34

5000-3000 BC next Huanghe river culture after Peiligang which it develops from farmed foxtail millet, chinese cabbage, hemp, chestnuts, domesticated soybean silkworms,pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, dogs spatially planned communities eg Banpo with 100 houses surrounded by a ditch w/ cemetery and pottery kilns outside ditch decorated pottery, steaming vessels (early chinese cuisine), signs/marks on pots, not viewed as language however viewed as roots of chinese culture

Question 35

describe the Hongshan culture

Answer 35

located in manchuria 4000-3000 BC small villages w/ ceremonial cites and burials; fragments of clay statues Niuheliang temple; life sized female head with jade eyes in cruciform structure w/ semi-subterranean chambers proto-state?

Question 36

describe the longshan culture (chronology, social organization, etc)

Answer 36

follow yangshao culture in Huanghe (yellow) river social ranking, unequal distribution of wealth, increased violence (fortified cities and more skeletons with trauma); craft specialization Longshan Horizon; interaction sphere of independent polities that spread tech and share ideology/material symbols; material culture becomes more homogenous and polities may unite 'black pottery culture'; black, burnished ceramics; pedestal bowls (tou) and cooking pots with hollow legs (ting) inequality shown in burials; highest status had wood coffins, jade ornaments, ceremonial weapons, fine pottery hang tu (rammed earth) construction techniques; 10m thick and several meters high (needed organized workforce but unsure if evidence of an early state)

Question 37

what is scapulamancy

Answer 37

ritual for predicting future using bones ask question to deities and ancestors by writing them on shoulder blade of an ox or turtle plastron hot metal rod applied; pattern of cracking determined answers to questions no inscriptions on longshan oracle bones in shang times answers were recorded on bone/shell

Question 38

describe the Xia state

Answer 38

debated if the dynasty was mythical founded by Yu the Great; exact location and time unclear no evidence in Shang oracle texts supposed Xia sites can't be distinguished from Shang via material culture if real, it was in Huanghe valley with capital at Erlitou

Question 39

describe Erlitou

Answer 39

city of 20k people thought to be capital of the Xia dynasty elite centers w/ palace enclosures, clusters of villages and workshops around them long distance trade; bronze for elites 2 rectangular palaces of rammed earth in regulated patter on cardinal directions human sacrifices, bronze and turquoise workshops

Question 40

describe the Shang dynasty

Answer 40

1st historically recorded civilization in china (1600-1046 BC) info from archaeology in Anyang (Yin), historical texts, oracle bone inscriptions 7 capitals in middle Huanghe river valley; 1st capital at Ao (under modern Zhengzhou) began as confederation of smaller polities, that later were controlled by one ruler legend says it was founded by Cheng Tang who overthrew king of Xia conquered territories were incorporated as tributary provinces w/ local appointed officials common marriage alliances

Question 41

describe Yin

Answer 41

last Shang capital; important archaeological site present day Anyang over 5.8km ceremonial/admin center w/ rammed earth temples and royal residences; outer neighbourhoods had industrial workshops contains Xiaotun south of Huanbei Palace-temple complex

Question 42

describe Yin royal burials

Answer 42

most graves in the cemetery are small and not elaborate found 11 royal burials that required lots of labour; 10-11m deep, 40m ramps; eight cruciform, others rectangle 11 tombs are likely of the 11 recorded Shang kings that ruled Yin bronze vessels and objects, stone objects, shells and bones, human sacrifices

Question 43

describe lady fuhao

Answer 43

Fuhao often mentioned in oracle inscriptions; 1 of 60 wives of king wu-ding, greatest general of Shang led military campaigns on behalf of king, stood in for him in state functions tomb found intact with lacquered wooden coffin, 440 bronzes, weapons, 590 jades, stone, ivory goblets, turquoise

Question 44

describe chariot burials in ancient china

Answer 44

chariots, drivers, and horses slaughtered and placed in pits near ruler's tombs for use in afterlife (drivers were slaves/low status) chariot introduced from SW asia in 1300 BC in warfare slaves were taken for labour and sacrifice chariot and bronze tipped arrows were important in war until Qin-Han period saw rise of infantry

Question 45

describe Shang belief systems

Answer 45

ancestor worship, nature deities, celestial bodies deities associated with nature (ie rain god), control phenomena and ensure prosperity rulers act as intermediaries with spirit world

Question 46

describe oracle bone divination under the Shang dynasty

Answer 46

integral Shang ritual used earlier ie Longshan, but only had inscriptions from Shang king asked ancestors about future writing may have developed to record divinations inscriptions are logographic (spoken sounds)

Question 47

describe Shang social organization

Answer 47

quasi-feudal king had absolute power; only one who could contact ancestors rigid hierarchy; king, then nobles/aristocracy, then bureaucrats, then common farmers/labourers sumptuary laws on who could own bronzes tributes for taxes, labour, militia royal court organized as mirror of god world

Question 48

what is tian

Answer 48

heaven/god world of ancient china that the Shang royal court was organized as a mirror of; at center is Shangdi aka Lord on High translates as sky, day, transcendent deity also at center is a celestial pole (axis mundi) that the universe revolves around

Question 49

describe Yin craft workshops

Answer 49

made objects of bronze, bone, gems, also made pottery industrial scale and high sophistication; specialized division of labour

Question 50

describe the Shang bronzes

Answer 50

replace Longshan pottery forms in graves ritual vessels for preparing grain based drink.food (never meat) ass offerings to royal ancestors death of royal elite involved feast for ancestor spirits, then bronzes placed in deceased's tomb often had taotie masks in foreground, spirals in background symmetry is important; inscriptions repeated on left and right strict typology for ritual vessels

Question 51

describe ting

Answer 51

a cooking cauldron in ancient china by Zhou times, symbol of state; ownership necessary to keep kingly status

Question 52

describe bronze using polities outside of Shang

Answer 52

Kingdom of Shu (Sanxingdui); early city, 2 categories; bronze ritual vessels/objects in Shang style, and locally produced objects that emphasized human form Jiangxi province: likely part of Wecheng state; has Xin'gan tomb, 2nd richest next to Fuhao's tomb; some bronzes in tomb are in local style, some have taotie masks like Shang

Question 53

describe the fall of the Shang dynasty

Answer 53

1064 BC last ruler overthrown by Wu Wang, vassal from Wei river valley, who established Zhou dynasty cultural continuity; similar ritual bronzes, similar state structure Zhou is larger, more centralized and more bureaucracy in later eastern zhou get ironworking, compact cities, coins, markets

Question 54

briefly describe the late bronze age collapse

Answer 54

societal collapse in mediterranean basic in 12th century BC; sudden, violent, disruptive, caused material decline; debated causes

Question 55

describe the phoenicians generally

Answer 55

civilization of independent city-states in Canaan (Tyre and Sidon most important) maritime people; big ships with carved horse heads for Yamm, god of the sea craftspeople; glassware, carved ivories for furniture, ships, dyes eg indigo, Tyrian purple dye for royalty dye stained skin of workers so they were called the purple people

Question 56

describe the phoenician ports

Answer 56

sheltered anchorages, seawalls, linked offshore reefs/islets w/ masonry walls operated mediterranean by 8th century BC trading colonies in Carthage, Spain, Sicily

Question 57

describe phoenician craft

Answer 57

most found in assyrian cities (eg nimrud ivories) because the city states fell under assyria and persia in 8th century BC had fine multicoloured glass

Question 58

describe the phoenician alphabet

Answer 58

significant invention; replaces syllabic scripts, breaking syllables into individual sounds; 20-30 signs for a language working alphabet by 11 century BC spread to aramaeans, israelites, and greeks by 8th century; replaces cuneiform later

Question 59

what is an empire

Answer 59

large political entity bringing diverse societies under one ruler; other states maintain cultural identity and sometimes political autonomy, but must pay tribute and allegiance to imperial ruler tribute pays for monumental construction territory taken by military force

Question 60

describe the general chronology of the neo-assyrian empire

Answer 60

old assyrian (2000-1700 BC) middle assyrian (freed from Mitanni dominance in 14th century BC) late assyria sees start of neo assyrian empire; adad-nirari II comes to power 911 and begins expansion; ends in 612 BC with fall of Nineveh

Question 61

describe Ashurnasirpal II

Answer 61

883-859 BC lead assyrian armies 1st army with iron weapons tribute used to build capital Nimrud; 15 year project over 350 hectares; 70 million sun dried bricks; finished with 10 day feast for 70000 guests

Question 62

describe Nimrud

Answer 62

northwest palace on raised citadel in assyria entrances were lamassu figures (colossoal bulls with sweeping wings and human heads) for ritual protection, symbolized wisdom, sight, strength

Question 63

describe shalmaneser III

Answer 63

assyrian king 858-824 BC took control of syria and mediterranean coast tyre and sidon forced to pay tribute; commemorated on bronze gates at Balawat near Nimrud

Question 64

describe king sargon II

Answer 64

assyrian king 722-705 BC capital at Khorsabad; palace with decorative wall reliefs; died in battle, afterwards city was abandoned

Question 65

describe Urartu

Answer 65

mountain kingdom in armenia 830-600 BC (biblical ararat) capital tushpa many kingdoms form one to protect from assyria mountainous geography with impregnable fortresses to retreat to defeated by Median kingdom of iran

Question 66

describe nineveh

Answer 66

capital of assyria moved from nimrud to nineveh by sennacherib palace on citadel, large lower city with wall planted gardens, orchards and fields water from mountain springs brought by aqueduct and canals clay tablets have diplomatic records, epic of gilgamesh, religious/medical texts place of scholarship; assyrians searched for ancient tablets to add to libraries

Question 67

describe the collapse of assyria

Answer 67

after ashurbanipal dies, it collapses and Medes from iran and neo-babylonians destroyed cities medes kingdom withdraws from mesopotamia and leaves it to babylonians, who take nineveh

Question 68

who was nebuchadnezzar

Answer 68

605-555 BC ruler who reconstructed assyria under neo-babylonian control babylon was capital captured jerusalem and looted temple; son belshazzar has feast with temple vessels, god's hand writes on wall saying he was found wanting and is defeated

Question 69

describe city of babylon

Answer 69

inner walls considered a wonder of the ancient worldbaked brick forts w/ towers and gates, room for chariots to pass Ishtar gate at royal palace decorated with blue bricks and dragons/lions/bulls; head of Processional Way, led to temple of marduk and ziggurat (etemenanki) a thousand temples

Question 70

what is the processional way

Answer 70

place for processions in city of babylon; from palace to temple of marduk processions done for events like new year, statues paraded

Question 71

who was Midas

Answer 71

legendary king of Phrygians who could turn what he touched to gold ally of Sargon II of assyria Phrygia had large mineral deposits tomb had no gold; bronze cauldrons and bowls tree ring date from timber dates to 740 BC which is long before his reign ended; maybe tomb of his predecessor Gordias

Question 72

who were the Lydians

Answer 72

rise after Phrygia declines wealthy; positioned on trade routes m/w mediterranean and asia king Croesus 560-546 BC capital sardis on west of anatolian plateau electrum coins; knew how to separate electrum into gold and silver coinage copied by greeks and persians; later conquered by persians

Question 73

who were the medians and persians

Answer 73

persians from SW iran; medes to north with capital at Ectabana, united west iran into one power persians lived under median rule until 550 BC when cyrus the great overthrew them

Question 74

who was King Cyaxares

Answer 74

king of Medes invaded mesopotamia 614 BC, contributing to fall of assyria war with lydians, but was interrupted by solar eclipse; one of 4 major powers (lydians, medians, babylonians, egypt)

Question 75

who is cyrus the great

Answer 75

overthrew medians in 550 BC, making persians the dominant power 'shah' of persia conquered lydia and babylon after campaign against nabonidus kept rulers of conquered lands for advice governed multicultural empire w/ equal responsibilities and rights for all as long as they paid tribute and tax and kept peace son Cambyses II took egypt and nubia wrote cyrus cylinder, restored statues of gods to temples to legitimize reign

Question 76

what is the cyrus cylinder

Answer 76

oldest declaration of human rights by cyrus the great of persia

Question 77

who is King Darius

Answer 77

general who was king when cyrus's son died on way back from egypt; ruled to peak of persia largest population of any empire; 50 million, 44% of world at time uniform monetary system, aramaic as official language, roads and standard weights memorial to him in behistun

Question 78

describe the decline of persia

Answer 78

rulers became decadent, increased internal trouble defeated at battle of marathon 490 BC taken by alexander the great

Question 79

describe the legendary origins of rome

Answer 79

attributed to romulus ~753 BC romulus and remus are twins from rhea silvia and mars (maternal grandfather is king Alba Longa); uncle ordered them to be thrown into tiber river rescued and nursed by wolf before king's herdsman found them brothers killed uncle and restored grandfather alba longa to throne went to tiber to establish city, fought over which hill should house new city remus is killed; romulus fortifies palatine hill and becomes king of rome

Question 80

describe the rule of early rome

Answer 80

commanded by king (rex) with absolute power 7 legendary kings, advised by senate after romulus kings were elected by people from nominees confirmed by senate kings from latin, sabine (umbrian), and etruscan origins

Question 81

describe the roman republic

Answer 81

510 BC leading families overthrow kings and establish republican constitution oligarchies became more common rome still a city sstate among about 14 in the area dominated by patrician aristocrats with wealth from land most citizens were plebians,; commoners with internal hierarchy, laws, and interests state compelled to give plebians access to politics; elected tribunes who had veto power spread of latin, waning of greek and etruscan influence annex etruscan city Veii rivalry shifted to Carthage by the punic war

Question 82

describe carthage

Answer 82

north africa, founded by phoenicians in 9th century BC became city state and then empire with height in 4th century by 300 BC they had naval and commercial domination fought rome in the Punic wars

Question 83

describe the first punic war

Answer 83

264-241 BC 23 years; carthage and rome fought over control of Sicily battle of cape ecnomus ended with treaty and roman annexation of sicily; syracuse stayed a greek city state

Question 84

describe the second punic war

Answer 84

218-201 BC happened in Italy, Iberia, and Africa after 1st war, carthage expanded in iberia; 219 BC forces under Hannibal captured and sacked roman backed city of saguntum next year, hannibal and gailic allies surprised romans by land invasion over alps hannibal had victories but couldn't capture rome; romans invaded north africa and defeated him gave rome territorial holdings outside italian peninsula treaty stopped carthage from waging war without roman permission

Question 85

describe the 3rd punic war

Answer 85

149-146 BC after 2nd, rome expanded eastward carthage sends army to fight romans in aid of ally Masinissa of Numidia fought in carthiginian territory; roman sieges of carthage ended with destruction of carthage; inhabitants sold as slaves, territory incorporated as roman province of africa with capital at Utica

Question 86

describe the early life of julius caesar

Answer 86

born in 100 BC to patrician family claiming descent from Aeneas and Venus father died at 16 so he was nominated high priest of jupiter general Sulla victorius in civil war and declared himself dictator; targeted caesar because he was married to the daughter of an influential member of the opposition fled rome and joined army in west asia

Question 87

describe caesar's rise to power

Answer 87

after sulla died in 78 BC caesar returned to rome to be an orator (lawyer) and prosecuted politicians connected to sulla elected to military tribune in 71 BC, made alliances eg with pompey elected to praetorship in 63 BC, then governor of Hispania Ulterior, then Roman Consul 1st triumvirate was an alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus made enemies with Optimates in debt due to ambitions; gained wealth through conquest eg in Gaul ally killed Crassus, Pompey aligns with Optimates and terminates Caesar's governance in Gaul Caesar amasses troops and crosses Rubicon into italy and Pompey flees to egypt, where he is killed because egyptians though gods favoured caesar caesar went into egyptian civil war, killing ptolemy XIII and installing cleopatra appointed dictator in absentia; spent years suppressing rebellions and defeating optimates before becoming Dictator Perpetuus (dictator for life)