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Midterm content Flashcards

1
Q

What microscope is used to see cells and smaller objects?

A

Light microscope

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2
Q

What forms a light microscope?

A

a lens and light

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3
Q

Which microscope is used for studying organelles?

A

Transmission electron microscope

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4
Q

Which microscope is used for studying surface structure?

A

Scanning electron microscope

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5
Q

What is a macromolecule?

A

A polymer of smaller molecules

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6
Q

What are the 4 kinds of macromolecules?

A

Polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids (lipids are not real macromolecules)

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7
Q

How do molecules grow?

A

Dehydration reactions

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8
Q

How do you break down molecules?

A

Hydrolysis

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9
Q

What are polysaccharides and disaccharides held by?

A

Glycosidic linkage bonds

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10
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Polymers built of many monosaccharides, structural and storage

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11
Q

What are structural polysaccharides used for?

A

To build strong materials ex: exoskeleton

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12
Q

What are storage polysaccharides used for?

A

Store sugar in the form of storage polysaccharides (plants- starch, humans-glycogen)

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13
Q

what are lipids?

A

Diverse group of hydrophobic molecules: Consist of phospholipids, steroids, fats

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14
Q

What are fatty acids formed of?

A

Hydrocarbon chain, carbon at one end is part of carboxyl group

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15
Q

What is a fat?

A

constructed from two smaller molecules: fatty acid and glycerol

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16
Q

triacyglycerol?

A

3 fatty acids, 3 glycerol molecules

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17
Q

What is a phospholipid?

A

two fatty acids attached to glycerol, one hydroxyl group attached to phosphate

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18
Q

What is a saturated phospholipid?

A

no double bonds, completely surrounded by Hydrogen (solid)

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19
Q

What is an unsaturated phospholipid?

A

Double bond, cinched, hydrogen cannot completely surround it (liquid)

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20
Q

What is a phospholipid bilayer?

A

a hydrophilic double membrane (head is hydrophilic, tail is hydrophobic)

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21
Q

Explain how DNA is transcribed

A

DNA (transcription) - RNA (translated)- amino acid chain (folding) - protein

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22
Q

What are some uses for proteins?

A

Enzymes, antibodies, storage proteins, etc..

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23
Q

What are amino acids composed of?

A

Organic molecules with an amino group and a carboxyl group, have side chains of amino acids, join to create polypeptides

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24
Q

Which bonds hold proteins together?

A

Peptide bonds

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25
Q

How many amino acids are there?

A

There are 20 different kinds, each chain varies in order which can produce many many different proteins

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26
Q

What are the 4 levels of protein structure?

A
  1. Primary
  2. secondary
  3. Tertiary
  4. Quaternary
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27
Q

What occurs in the 1st phase of protein structure?

A

Amino acids bond to form polypeptides

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28
Q

What happens in the 2nd phase of protein structure?

A

Secondary: hydrogen bonds stabilize regions (Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet)

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29
Q

What happens in the 3rd phase of protein structure?

A

Tertiary: Protein structure forms

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30
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

Acids involved in the production and synthesis of DNA and cell division

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31
Q

What forms nucleic acids?

A

Ribose/deoxyribose, phosphate, sugar (backbone)

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32
Q

Describe DNA

A

Double helix strand, hydrogen bonds formed between nitrogenous bases, 5’ to 3’

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33
Q

Describe RNA

A

Single strand, bonds with itself,

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34
Q

What is a eukaryotic cell?

A

Contains internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions, DNA is in nucleus

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35
Q

What is a prokaryotic cell?

A

Lacks a true nucleus, much simpler internal structure, dan concentrated in nucleoid

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36
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

The region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane

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37
Q

What is the plasma membrane/membrane of organelles?

A

Consists of a phospholipid bilayer, with proteins embedded/bobbing in it, carbs attached

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38
Q

What does it mean to be amphipathic?

A

Has water loving/hating regions ie: phospholipid

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39
Q

Where does transcription occur?

A

the nucleus

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40
Q

Where does translation occur?

A

The cytoplasm

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41
Q

What is the nuclear envelope?

A

Encloses the nucleus, composed of two membranes, one porous layer that allows proteins and RNA through

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42
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

Where ribosomal RNA is synthesized

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43
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Complexes made of ribosomal RNA and proteins: carry out protein synthesis

**remember that to synthesize protein uses mrna, rrna, and trna

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44
Q

What are the two types of ribosomes?

A

Free ribosomes and bound ribosomes *structurally identical

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45
Q

What are free ribosomes?

A

Suspended in cytosol, creates proteins for the cell

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46
Q

What are bound ribosomes?

A

Attached to the outside of endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope, creates proteins for membrane and out of the cell

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47
Q

What is the endosymbiont theory?

A

Early prokaryotic cells that were absorbed by the cell ex: mitochondria: oxygen using non photosynthetic prokaryotic cell absorbed

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48
Q

What is the mitochondria?

A

Sites of cellular respiration, turns sugar into energy

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49
Q

What are chloroplasts?

A

Found in plants, photosynthesize, contain plastids and chloroplasts, contain a 3rd membrane: thylakoid membrane

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50
Q

What is a peroxisome?

A

Contains enzymes that produce H2O2
- break down harmful things, removes Hydrogen, and adds to oxygen

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51
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

Regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions

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52
Q

What forms the endomembrane system?

A

Nuclear envelope
The endoplasmic reticulum (rough/smooth)
The golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vesicles and vacuoles
Plasma membrane

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53
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae

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54
Q

What are the two kinds of ER?

A

Smooth and rough

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55
Q

What does the smooth ER do?

A

outer surface lacks ribosomes, functions in diverse metabolic processes

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56
Q

What does the rough ER do?

A

-Studded with ribosomes
- makes proteins to be secreted, and membrane proteins

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57
Q

How do proteins leave the ER?

A

Through transport vesicles from the rough er to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus

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58
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus?

A

The ‘shipping and receiving centre’, consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae, not physically connected, different enzymes that do different modifications

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59
Q

How do proteins leave the Golgi?

A

Through transport vesicles, molecular identification tags that lead it to the correct part of the membrane

60
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

Membranous sacs of hydrolytic enzymes that eukaryotic cells use to digest macromolecules

61
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

-Food vacuole surrounds food and smaller organisms, lysosome fuse to this vacuole whose enzymes digest this food

62
Q

What is autophagy?

A

Damaged organelles become surrounded by a double membrane which fuses with lysosome to be digested

63
Q

What are vacuoles?

A

large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

64
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

A network of fibres that organizes structures and activity in the cell
- provides mechanical support/maintains its shape
Dynamic: Can change the shape of the cell

64
Q

What is the contractile vacuole?

A

Pumps excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration

65
Q

What is a microtubule?

A

The thickest of the 3, tube shaped, made from dimers (alpha and beta tubulin)
- constructed from a globular protein called tubulin
- the beta end is the ‘positive end’, grows and shrinks faster
- Shapes and support the cell, serves as tracks along which organelles can move (if they have motor proteins)

66
Q

Where do microtubules grow from?

A

The centrosome

66
Q

What are some common things that microtubules can form?

A

Cilia: power and recovery strokes
Flagellum: undulating motions like the tail of a fish

66
Q

What motor protein do microtubules use to move?

A

Kinesins: they move vesicles and organelles along microtubules

66
Q

Which motor protein do microfilaments use?

A

Myosin: sliding of myosin along acting stimulates muscle contraction

66
Q

What are the 3 main types of cell junctions?

A

tight junctions, desmosomes, Gap junctions

66
Q

What is ATP?

A

Adenosine triphosphate, used for cellular work

66
Q

What is the extracellular matrix?

A

Animal cells lack a cell wall but do have an ECM,
Integrins connect the ECM to the cell

66
Q

What are microfilaments?

A

the thinnest of the types, built from molecules of actin

66
Q

What does anabolic mean?

A

Synthesis of more complex compounds, energetic (requires energy)

66
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A

Middle sized
- Keratin is most common, only found in some animals

66
Q

what is a tight junction?

A

Prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells (waterproof)

67
Q

What is a desmosome?

A

Strong connections between cells, connected to intermediate filaments, ‘fasten’ cells together

67
Q

What kinds of cellular work is ATP used for?

A

Transport, mechanical, chemical

67
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

used for ‘communication’
allows for transfer of ions, amino acids, sugars to pass through

67
Q

What does phosphorylate mean?

A

ATP is a renewable resource, can be regenerated by addition of phosphate to ADP.

67
Q

What does catabolic mean?

A

A disassembly of complex molecules, exergonic: releases energy

67
Q

Where does the energy to phosphorylate come from?

A

Comes from the exergonic reactions in the cell (releases energy, this energy is used to phosphorylate)

67
Q

What are enzymes?

A

macromolecules that act as a catalyst but not consumed

67
Q

What is the substrate?

A

the reactant an enzyme acts on

67
Q

What is the active site?

A

a pocket/groove on the surface of the enzyme where the enzyme binds

68
Q

What is a catabolic pathway?

A

a metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking down molecules

69
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

occurs in the cytosol, breaks glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate

70
Q

What happens to pyruvate?

A

Enters the mitochondria and is oxidized into acetyl CoA which enter the citric acid cycle

71
Q

What happens in the citric acid cycle after pyruvate is oxidized?

A

The energy yielding oxidation is complete

72
Q

What happens to the hydrogen molecules after the citric acid cycle?

A

The hydrogen atoms are passed 1st to an electron carrier

73
Q

What is the electron carrier called?

A

NAD+ which turns into NADH

74
Q

What are dehydrogenases?

A

Enzymes that remove a pair of hydrogen from the substrate

75
Q

What is the electron transport chain used for?

A

A series of proteins that pass electrons from NADH to oxygen while accumulating hydrogen protons across a membrane

76
Q

NOTE** ATP synthase uses the energy of ion gradient like a water mill. A flow of hydrogen concentrates ADP and phosphate molecules in the membrane to form ATP
Power source come from hydrogen ion gradient

A
77
Q

What is a genome?

A

A cell’s DNA, genetic info (sex cell)

78
Q

What is chromatin?

A

A mixture of DNA and proteins that form chromosomes

79
Q

What is a nucleosome?

A

Basic repeating subunit of chromatin packaged in the cell’s nucleus

80
Q

Explain the structure of chromosomes?

A

chromosomes, nucleosomes, chromatin

81
Q

What is the cell cycle and it’s steps?

A

A series of events that take place as a cell grows and divides
- M, G1, S, G2

82
Q

What are duplicated chromosomes called?

A

They are called sister chromatids

83
Q

What is a centromere?

A

A region in the chromosome where chromatics are attached most closely

84
Q

What is interphase?

A

G1-first gap, S-synthesis, G2- second gap

85
Q

What is chromatin?

A

When a cell isn’t dividing, the chromosomes in a long thin chromatin fibre
chromatin also forms subunits of nucleosomes which form chromosomes

86
Q

What is the M phase?

A

Both mitosis and cytokenesis occur here

87
Q

what is mitosis?

A

The division of genetic material in the nucleus

88
Q

What are the 5 stages of mitosis?

A
  1. Prophase: centrosome move away from each other
  2. prometaphase: nucelar envelope dissapears, chromosomes even more condensed, microtubules grow and attach to chromsomes
  3. Metaphase: Centrosomes now are opposite sides of cell, chromosomes lined up in the middle of the cell
  4. Anaphase: New daughter chromosomes pulled apart
  5. telophase: two daughter nuclei form, mitosis complete
89
Q

What is the mitotic spindle?

A

Structure consists of fibres made of microtubules and proteins
- lines up chromosomes, formed during anaphase

90
Q

What is a kinetochore?

A

A structure made of proteins, holds at the centre of a sister chromosomes

91
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

Cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells, the ‘cleavage furrow’

92
Q

What regulates the cell cycle?

A

regulated by a molecular control system composed of cyclin and cyclin-dependant kinases

93
Q

What is a kinase?

A

An enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other molecules and modulates protein functions

94
Q

How do cyclin dependant kinases activate?

A

must be attached to cyclin, acts as the go ahead signal

95
Q

Why does CDK concentration rise and fall?

A

It’s dependant on cyclin concentrations which fluctuates

96
Q

Which nitrogenous base binds with which? Adenine, Thymine, C and uracil

A

C with T, A with U

97
Q

What are cisternae?

A

pockets that compose the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum

98
Q

What are cristae?

A

Small grooves on the interior membrane of the mitochondria

99
Q

What are ribosomes composed of?

A

Apart from the trna, mrna, and rrna, the ribosomes are made up of small and large subunits (large on ‘top’, small on ‘bottom’)

100
Q

What is generally bonded to proteins that leave the cell once synthesized?

A

Carbohydrates

101
Q

What is the extracellular matrix composed of?

A

Glycoproteins and carbohydrate molecules

102
Q

What holds the ECM to the cell?

A

Integrin

103
Q

How is energy from ATP released?

A

Through hydrolysis (breakdown releases energy)

104
Q

How do unicellular organisms identify mates?

A

Through chemical signalling. Each cell type secretes a mating factor that hinds to the receptors on the other cell.

105
Q

What is quorum sensing?

A

Bacterial cells secrete molecules that can be detected by other bacterial cells. Sensing the concentration of signalling molecules allows bacteria to monitor local density of cells called quorum sensing.

106
Q

What is the communication between direct cells?

A

type of local signalling ex: gap junctions (communication between adjacent cells)

107
Q

What are cell junctions?

A

Allows for molecules to pass between cells

108
Q

What is cell-cell recognition?

A

Two cells in an animal cell communicate by interaction between molecules protruding from their surfaces

109
Q

What is paracrine signalling?

A

Another type of local signalling, molecules are secreted by the signalling cell and these molecules travel short distances.

110
Q

What is synaptic signalling?

A

A type of local signalling occurring in the animal nervous system

111
Q

What are the different kinds of local signalling?

A

Synaptic signalling, paracrine signalling, gap junctions,

112
Q

What type of signalling stimulates muscle contraction?

A

Synaptic signalling (includes synaptic signalling between a muscle and neuron)

113
Q

What is long distance signalling?

A

When hormones are secreted to travel long distances to stimulate a signal in other regions of the body

114
Q

What are the 3 cell signalling stages?

A

Signal reception, signal transduction, cellular response

115
Q

What is reception?

A

A signalling molecule binds to a receptor protein causing it to change shape

116
Q

How do certain signalling molecules perform a signal without entering the cell?

A

Most water soluble signalling molecules bind to specific sites on transmembrane receptor proteins that transmit information from the extracellular environment to the inside of the cell

117
Q

How is GTP bound?

A

A G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) works with the help of a G protein

118
Q

What is GTP?

A

Similar to ATP, primarily used for signalLING

119
Q

What is a kinase?

A

An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups

119
Q

What is an RTK?

A

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases belong to a major class of plasma membrane receptors characterized by having enzymatic activity

120
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

A mechanism for regulating protein activity. Activates or inactivates proteins. (adds a phosphate to a molecule)

121
Q

Where are intracellular receptors found?

A

Found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells

122
Q

What is transduction?

A

Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell

123
Q

What happens in a phosphorylation cascade?

A

Series of proteins are phosphorylated, each protein adding a phosphate group to the next one in line

124
Q

What is the purpose of an enzyme cascade?

A

Amplifies the cell’s response to a signal

125
Q

What is the response stage?

A

Cell signalling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities (many pathways regulate protein synthesis, turning on or off in the nucleus)

bio (11 decks)

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