Misinformation Management Flashcards

Question

What is the political economy perspective on media?

Answer 1

Examines r/s btw economic structures and the media - how does capital flows affect what we see, read, and hear on media? Lowest common denominator approach: focus on mass audiences and financially lucrative audiences - risk avoidance in media content - commercial incentives -> sensationalism of news, clickbait, dramatization of news

Answer 2

Stems from the exponential growth of computerisation, miniaturisation, digitalisation and information networks, as well as the rise of social structures that value information work, networks and data orientation as bases of wealth and power. Challenges traditional structures, hierarchies, information and communication flow. Datafication of social life, where all words and actions can be codified into data to be processed, shared, monetised, etc. Power to institutions and entities that own and control information flow and networks; individuals and groups who can code, interpret, participate and leverage information for advantage (think: Silicon Valley elites)

Answer 3

Degree to which individuals perceive the presence of others during communication – Based on the media’s capacity to transmit verbal and non-verbal cues – More cues, greater satisfaction with the communication – The fewer the cues, the lower the attention paid within an interaction

Answer 4

– Information richness is judged by the conveyance of multiple cues, the immediacy of feedback, the ability to personalise, and the ability to tap on varieties of language – The more information afforded by the media, the more effective it can be - especially when faced with uncertainty or equivocality

Answer 5

1. filtering 2. Meaning matching - Access reference points, i.e., where meanings may have been previously encountered + Recognise beliefs and understandings associated with the referents 3. Meaning construction - Interpret the information from multiple perspectives and angles + build connections

Answer 6

To signal attention to others in mediated environments as to maintain connection with others and to build social capital. To present oneself via diverse activities that leave visible signals of attention, such as giving likes, leaving comments, or DMs, etc.

Answer 7

Online communicators are savvy about the self-presentational opportunities and limitations afforded by computer-mediated communication and will use them in a strategic way to maximise interaction goals.

Answer 8

Features that communicators will consider: – Rehearsability: Ability to think through information before its publication (afforded by asychronity) – Editability: Ability to revise, modify and control information – Reduced communication cues: Understanding the media’s parameters – Recordability: Ability to save, store and retrieve information (e.g., screenshot) – Anticipated future interaction: Expectation of meeting in person

Answer 9

Distance between what’s real and what’s presented; self and self-presentation. Users assess the credibility of online information by evaluating its warranting value - degree to which a target (e.g., person, organisation, company) is perceived to have manipulated, controlled, or shaped information that is about that target. The higher the perceived manipulation or control by the subject, the lower the warranting value. Low warranting value can explain why people are more or less likely to produce deceptive information online

Answer 10

Risk perceptions contribute to information insufficienty and percieving a risky situation as severe and dangerous to oneself

Answer 11

When individuals percive a lack of sufficient information about a risk, they are more likely to engage in active information seeking behaviours to cope with the mental state of uncertaintiy that they experince in risky enviroments

Answer 12

Systematic information processing with accuracy motivations as people attempt to cope with their uncertainites

Answer 13

SARF posits that risk amplification occus in the transfer of information about the risk, with the underlying assumption that risks are interactive phenomena that involve socialising within a network aka media can a amplify, filter or reduce risk signals

Answer 14

1. Can stem from information overload 2. post truth society: where objective facts are less influential in shapping public opinion that appels to emotion and personal belief 3. Confirmation bias 4. Misinformation often preys on human emotions and insecurities 5. Poor media skils

Answer 15

“Fake news” used to refer only to parodies and satires but contemporary understandings of “fake news” refers to false stories that can mislead readers

Answer 16

Financial gain from clickas and views and ideological gains through the advancement of arguments, idea and perspecitive

Answer 17

Buzzword to discredit, and complicate public understanding and discourse + oxymoron: news is supposed to be based on truth

Answer 18

Humour that invovles mimicking and imitating real persoons, personas, events, places ect Often plays on the ludicrousness of issues and serves as social commentary or critique Parodies can be mistaken for real news, if the humour is subtle, leading to the unintentional spread of misinformation when readers take the content seriously - Informative and entertaining

Answer 19

Employs exaggeration, irony, sarcasm and humor to present news and infromation - often in a critical manner Play on ludicrousness of issues and highlights them by making entirely fictitious news stories - e.g. The Onion Assumption is that author and read of news share the gag Such contents can serve as commentaries and critiques of political, economic, and social issues - to inform and to influence social attitudes

Answer 20

Created with the intention of misleading readers by mimicking the style of legitimate news information. Difficult to distinguish from real news as they are often designed to look authentic, sound fair balanced, and truthful - giving it a “veneer of authenticity” (especially when it’s published on nonpartisan platforms and shared by friend

Answer 21

Often capitalises on existing social tensions, making them more likely to be believed by readers who are already biased. Bots and algorithms facilitate spread by creating the illusion of widespread acceptance and lending legitimacy.

Answer 22

Advertising and public relations materials are, sometimes, made to appear as if they are real news / objective, non-partisan information As practitioners adopt the appearances of news media to promote products or ideas, audiences may be misled to perceive the content without questioning its origin or bias. Clickbait headlines and tactics may exploit news values to attract attention but mislead users, often diverting them to sites that may further mislead users

Answer 23

Video News Releases -> pre packaged video segments produced by PR firms to sell/promote product, company and idea - Packaged with tv news - Obscure origin as it can mislead audience into believing news is produced free from bias Narrative advertising Combine genuine news stories but only when examining presentation it is a advertisement - Usually based on facts but typically incomplete to focus on positive aspects of person or product =E.g. 2014 news feature published on The New York Times’ website on women’s incarceration. This was used to promote the television program Orange is the New Black

Answer 24

Satire, Ads, Parody and fabircation?

Answer 25

Facticity: degree to which content relies on facts e.g. satires rely on factos as they offer exaggerated takes while fabrications are presented w/o factual basis Author's immediate intention: Degree to which the content creator intends to mis leads - satire + parodies are for jokes for bending facts

Answer 26

Fake news created by journalist but is co-constructed by the audience - it's fake because you percieved it as real but if you don't, it's just a work of fiction

Answer 27

Motivation = Expectancy x Value Expectation: Audiences’ belief and confidence in the gratifications of media use based on relevant past experiences with said media. Value: Extent to which naudiences desire the gratifications

Answer 28

- explain relationship between the audience and the performers’ persona. - Developed and strengthened through repeated parasocial interactions. - Describes enduring relationship that extends beyond media use, and that cannot be reciprocated

Answer 29

1. Media and technology adopted and used by people 2. Users and enviroment change accordingly to adapt to media and technology 3. Media and technology receive advancements, upgrades, new features 4. Media and technologies reflect our ways of life

Answer 30

Audience expect media to conform to certain forms of truthfulness and factuality, good taste and morality and to values deemed important to local community News outlets are traditionally judged on credibility -> once truth is lost, it is hard to regain Norms for what is acceptable (sex, violence, profanities) and societies deems as deviant behaviours. Protection of children and the personal susceptibility and moral standards of adults are often contested

Answer 31

the dissementaion of accurate, scientific, factual information to audiences can result in improvements in accurate, factual, scientific knowledge, thus resulting in behaviours better informed by science

Answer 32

Model ignores the cognitive, social and affective drivers of attitude formation and truth judgements, e.g., existence of climate change deniers in an environment where access to information on climate science is ubiquitous. - Rejection of facts and scientific information may be motivated by other factors (think: expectancy value theory)

Answer 33

When deciding what is true, people are often biased to believe in the validity of information, and ‘go with their gut’ and intuitions instead of deliberating.

Answer 34

When people rely on peripheral cues such as familiarity (a signal that a message has been encountered before), processing fluency (a signal that a message is either encoded or retrieved effortlessly) and cohesion (a signal that the elements of a message have references in memory that are internally consistent) as signals for truth

Answer 35

Repetition increases belief in both misinformation and facts. Illusory truths can persist months after first exposure, regardless of cognitive ability and despite contradictory advice from accurate sources

Answer 36

1. Availability heuristic: Tendency to estimate the commonality of an event based on its mental availability (often influenced by its vividness or distinctiveness). 2. Confirmation bias: Tendency to welcome information that supports our views, and to discount what does not. 3. Self-justification: Tendency to correct cognitive dissonance by denying any feedback that runs counter to one’s beliefs. 4. Illusory correlations: Tendency to identify patterns and draw conclusions; leading to perceptions of causal links where there are none. 5. Dunning–Kruger effect: Tendency to overestimate our intelligence. Ignorance ironically fosters overconfidence. The less people know, the less aware they are of their own ignorance and the more definite they may sound. Lack of self awareness that prevents these people from assessing their own knowledge or ability accurately

Answer 37

- People trust human sources more if they perceive the source as attractive, powerful and similar to themselves. - People believe in-group members more than outgroup members, and will tend to weigh opinions equally, regardless of the competence of those expressing them, and will often overestimate how much their beliefs overlap with others. - Experts and political elites are trusted by many and have the power to shape public perceptions; therefore, it can be especially damaging when figures of authority make false claims.

Answer 38

Emotional content influences false-belief formation. Misleading information that spreads virally often using emotional appeals, such as fear, to persuade and change attitudes and behaviours. Emotion can distract from important cues like source credibility, as studies show that judgements are more influenced by the emotional tone of a message than the trustworthiness of the source.

Answer 39

Specific emotional states, such as happiness or anger, can increase vulnerability to deception and illusory truth. Negative emotions like social exclusion can heighten susceptibility to conspiracy theories. Anger can drive people to share and spread misinformation. Lazy or intuitive thinking can facilitate the sharing of content that they might recognise as false if they thought about it more.

Answer 40

When the accurate information is learned, the original (mis)information is not erased or replaced. Information and misinformation thus co-exist and compete for activation in our brains - affects people’s ability to accept accurate information even after the misinformation has been corrected.

Answer 41

1. Source credibility: Perceived trustworthiness and expertise of information sources significantly affect whether misinformation or corrections areaccepted. 2. Worldview: Corrections that challenge a person’s values, belief systems or identity will likely backfire. Such corrections can be experienced as an attack, which can triggers emotional responses that will hinder acceptance of the revised information. 3. Emotion: Corrections can trigger psychological discomforts and other emotional responses, which can lead audiences to reject the revised information, and to reinforce existing beliefs. 4. Emotional recalibration: Corrections can make audiences feel good (e.g., fostering feelings of hope or reducing feelings of fear) can facilitate acceptance.

Answer 42

1. Often related with feelings of powerlessness 2. Perceivers ascribe hostile and evil qualities to an out-group. 3. Tendency towards simplistic thinking; the believe that complex sociopolitical problems actually have simple causes and simple solutions. 4. Tendency to exercise intuitive thinking. Yet, capacity to think analytically is insufficient to reduce conspiracy beliefs; one also needs to be motivated to be rational and rely on evidence to come to informed judgments. System 2 thinking stimulates skepticism of conspiracy theories instead of belief in them. 5. The more strongly people believe conspiracy theories, the more likely they also endorse implausible non-conspiratorial beliefs including paranormal phenomena, superstition, pseudo-science, and pseudo-profound bullshit

Answer 43

Prebunking and debunking

Answer 44

Reactive intervention that responds to specific instances and specific misinformation to explain and correct inaccuracies

Answer 45

Preemptive intervention that helps people to recognise and to subsequently resist misinformation that they may encounter

Answer 46

1. Inoculation theory: Draws on the principle of vaccination, where exposure to weakened forms of persuasive arguments strengthens people’s critical thinking and builds resistance to future misinformation. How? - Warn audiences about the threat of misleading persuasion (e.g., false climate change claims). - Teach the techniques or fallacies used to mislead (e.g., cherry-picking data, fake experts, etc.) as to help individuals identify and refute similar arguments in the future. 2. Information and media literacy: The ability to find, evaluate, and use information and media effectively. Such critical thinking skills can reduce susceptibility to misinformation. 3. Lateral reading: Going beyond the source to verify the origins and credibility of the information and the source. 4. Overall, prebunking builds resistance to misinformation - broadly. Its lack of specificity is also its limitation

Answer 47

A. Provide factual information and explain how the error happened. Detailed refutations are more effective than brief retractions. B. Explain how the information is incorrect and make the correction obvious. Include warning label and avoid repeating misinformation unnecessarily. Repeat the correct information as reinforcement. C. Source credibility matters. Corrections can be made more effective if it comes from trusted sources D. Pair corrections with social norms to reinforce the message: * Injunctive norms, what people ought to do, e.g., “vaccination is the right thing to do” * Descriptive norms, what people actually do, e.g., “90% of parents vaccinate their children” E. Use simple language and visuals to aid understanding, and to communicate empathically. Empathy can reduce the likelihood of triggering the misinformed’s defensiveness, which can bring about counter-arguments. F. Identity affirmation can help mitigate worldview-threatening corrections by reinforcing self-worth, making corrections less threatening and more palatable

Answer 48

1. Hypothetico-deductive model 2. System of logic (explanation) 3. Povitisim

Answer 49

1. Open-minded 2. Analytical 3. Systematic 4. Inqusisitive 5. Judicious 6. Confident in reasoning

Answer 50

Interpretation -> Analysis -> Evaluation -> Explanation -> Self-regulation

Answer 51

1. Science is rarely settled 2. Facts are complex & often interpreted in more than 1 ways 3. Does not flow directly to audience but mediated by orgs, media and other actors 4. Belief in the information deficiet model 5. Being accurate and correct does not mean it is effective 6. Incomplete infomation 7. Audience have different levels of knowledge and skills to interpreate information

Answer 52

1. Prior knowledge of science 2. Use of heuristics

Answer 53

Poor lit review, small sample size, lack of represenation, correlation = causation, errors with interpretation

Answer 54

1. Desirability bias 2. Confirmation bias 3. Mathew effect

Answer 55

1. Share data 2. Storytelling 3. Framing 4. Tailor message 5. Establish credibility with humility 6. Dialouge 7. Authenticity

Answer 56

The manner in which the media are controlled in reflects both the media’s indispensability for business, politics and everyday social and cultural life, and their relationship to sociopolitical institutions and elites

Answer 57

* Protection of interests of state and public order * Safeguarding indivduals rights and interest * Meeting the needs of the media for stable and supportive operating environment * Promotion of freedom and other communication and cultural values * Encouragement of technological innovations and economic enterprise * Setting of technical and infrastructural standards * Meeting international obligation e.g. observance of human rights * Encouragement of media accountability

Answer 58

Formal & Informal and External & Internal

Answer 59

Formal & external: laws, regulation and public policies Formal & Internal: management, Ethics, organisational policies Informal & external: public opinion, market forces, civil society Informal & internal: organisational culture and employee feedback

Answer 60

Techniques where someone actively enagage target system, by mimciking legitimate user behaviours - a human not automated | a human, not automated

Answer 61

Tactic of manipulating, influencing or deceiving a victim in order to gain control over a computer system, or to steal personal and financial information.

Answer 62

Uses psychological manipulation to trick users into making security mistakes or giving away sensitive information

Answer 63

Form of social engineering where a criminal creates a fictional backstory that is used to mainpulate somone into providing private information or to influence behaviour

Answer 64

Personate a person of authority, co-worker or trusted org -> engage in back and forth communication to collect info - do extensive research on a target to create credible story to help build rapport and establish trust

Answer 65

Malicious attempt to obtain sensitive information about individuals by disgusing as a trustworhty website, person or company

Answer 66

Targeted, personalised, sophisticated phishing email messages designed to gather information about the vicitim by spying on email, social media ect. -> use info for impersonation, theft & crime

Answer 67

Phishing conducted over the phone by scammers portraying themselves as trustworthy entities

Answer 68

Impersonation of an individual in an organisation in order to trick employees, colleagues or vendors to surrender info, transfer funds ect

Answer 69

Form of attack where scammers lure vicitims into traps to steal personal and financial info or inflict the system with maleware - e.g. ads that lead to malicious sites

Answer 70

A physical breach where an unauthorised person manipulates their way into restricted or employee only authorised areas

Answer 71

Victims being bombared with fals alarms and fictitious threats -> think system is infected and prompt them to install actual maleware -> grant scammers remote access to user's computer

Answer 72

Attackers gathering sensitive info from trash - e.g. physical trash or harvesting info from computers that are stolen, sold or found

Answer 73

Involves attackers posing as a legitimate vendors or IT department colleagues, offering services or benefits in order to trick vicitims into surrending sensitive data, login credentials, money

Answer 74

1. Digital transformation strategy 2. Recognise, detect and assess 3. Build a cybersecurity culture 4. Develop monitoring and intervention tools 5. Build capacities | Week 9

Answer 75

1. Claim to freedom 2. Perception of potential harms 3. Need for equitable resource allocation 4. Feasibilty of effective regulation e.g. great firewall of china 5. Media society r/s - Liberal: freedom of press; minimal state intervention - Democratic corporatist: balances need for business sustainbility with public service - Polarised plurist: media reflects politicisation in society

Answer 76

Free press model, broadcast model, common carrier model

Answer 77

Phenomenon whereby an attempt to remove or censor a piece of information has paradoxical consequence of publicising more widely - linked to information released on the internet where suppressing photos, files and websites is nearly impossible

Answer 78

1. Global dimension of the internet in relation to the territoral boundaries of laws 2. Different coutries have different standards of what count as fake news 3. Difficulties in identifying the actual preptrators of fake news challenges enforcement 4. Increasing sophistication of misinformation and disinformation campaigns 5. Double standards btw online and offline content laws

Answer 79

Restriction, suppression or prohibition of forms of speech and media content deemed to be contrary to the common good

Answer 80

A psychiatric/behavioural disorder involving inability to regulate human-media interactions

Answer 81

Compusivity: the inability to control a certain type of media use Impairment: where media use harms or interferes with a person's life

Answer 82

Emotions translate to user information sharing behaviours - when we are less positive, we produce less +ve and more -ve posts and vice versa Emotions expressed by others on FB influence our own emotions Emotional content are more engaging + emotionally charged content can spread more successfully

Answer 83

Role of media in society -> the more pople use media (gradually and cumulatively) -> become more immerse and will adopt a view of the world expressed in media

Answer 84

Attribution theory --> making internal attributions for others but external attributions to others --> fundamental attribution errors

Answer 85

Perception that media messages influences others more than ourselves, leading to responses that reflect disparities btw truth and perception

Answer 86

Opportunities for social bonding + consuming tragic news collectively foster sense of connection with others + being a social opinion leader (being well informed) can be used to socialise and gain status

Answer 87

On social media, novel and speed > validation and accuracy --> fake news tend to be novel than typical truths --> motivates user to share them quickly

Answer 88

Distrust in media -> belief in fake news = perception that media enviroment lacks clear info authorities Young people find alternative, satirical and non-mainstream sources are seen more credible than legacy news

Answer 89

1. transparency - how info is sources + reproted, disclosure of COIs 2. High standards - professionalism in reporting - fact checking + interviewing 3. Fair representation - giving voices to diverse groups - balance and accurate 4. Perception of lack of bias - takes objective and impartial tone

Answer 90

Younger peeps find unfiltered content more trustworthy and authentic than traditional media - videos captured by bystandards -> seem to lack bias or political spin - Perception that videos are harder to falsify and allow viewers to form their own opinions - convenience of recieving news on platforms they already use - conveince and choice > source and trustworthiness

Answer 91

Helpful only if peeps view labels + labller are credible or trustworthy - if readers disagree with labeller or an label -> reinforce their existing beliefs about the source and the infomation circulated by it

Answer 92

Occurs when correction challenges an individual's deeply held beliefs or worldviews, leading them to reinfoce their original misconceptions as a defensive reaction --> pple generate counterarguments that align with their pre-existing views, making them less receptive to the concern

Answer 93

Occurs when misinfo is repeated within the correction itself. the repetition can inadvertently increases familiarity with the false claim, leading individuals to believe to more strongly

Answer 94

a situation where attempts to persuade individuals lead them to adopt a position contrary to what was intended

Answer 95

1. Forewarning - exposure counter-attiudinal attack trigger sense of threat -->motivate resistance + aware of their own vulnerability 2. Preemptive refutation - help model counter-arguing process and provide people with specific content that they can use to refute future persuasive challanges -> provide passive defense so people can generate their own active defences

Answer 96

Targeted intervention aimed at treating individuals who have already been exposed or hold beliefs in misinformation --> increase their awareness of misifno threats + tools to evaluate info more critically

Answer 97

1. Logic based content (understanding fallacies) > Fact-based content -> more effective in reducing misconceptions 2. Emotionally evocative content offer stronger resistance - esp agianst emotional misinformation 3. Active prophlactic inoculation > passive inoculation -- last up to 2 months and "booster shots" needed