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Physiology II > Neurophysiology > Flashcards

Neurophysiology Flashcards

1
Q

Photon energy is absorbed by cis-retinal. Isomerization to trans-retinal, seperation from opsin and enzyme activation

A
  • when photopigments are stimulated by light
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2
Q

What does it mean if there is no reaction in any dermatome caudal to T12 ?

A
  • spinal CORD damage at T12 level
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3
Q

Spinal Cord Lesion affect on proprioception

A
  • sensory ataxia

- > deficit in postural reactions and/or gait

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4
Q

Pathway for Touch

A
  • spinothalamic pathway
  • touch sensitive neurons enter the dorsal column and ascend to the somato-sensory cortex
  • > same pathway as conscious proprioception!
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5
Q

Lesion in the retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm and optic tracts results in?

A
  • vision and PLR deficits
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6
Q

What is affected for a lesion in the dorsal column?

A
  • gait is largely normal

- postural responses are affected

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7
Q

What does the cutaneous trunci reflex test?

A
  • the integrity of a long spinal cord segment from C8/T1 - L4/5
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8
Q

What contains the crista in its ampulla?

A
  • the 3 semi-circular canals
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9
Q

Where is the reticular activation system (RAS) located?

A
  • in the thalamus
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10
Q

Incoordinated gait and/or postural responses WITHOUT loss of muscle strength (without paresis/paralysis)

A
  • sensory ataxia
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11
Q

Second Pain

A
  • “Maintenance of pain”
  • activated nociceptors release additional chemicals
  • > substance P and calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP)
  • causes more pain and releases inflammatory mediators (inflammatory soup)
  • Activates a different set of nociceptors and maintain a burning, nagging, throbbing, etc lasting pain sensation via un-myelinated C fibers
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12
Q

First step when evaluating a neurological patient?

A
  • determine the site of the lesion
  • > lesion localization
  • followed by diagnostic procedures
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13
Q

Where do upper motor neurons originate and run?

A
  • originate in the brain (cortex and brainstem)
  • descends in the lateral and ventral funiculi
  • stimulate and inhibit lower motor neurons in the ventral gray horn
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14
Q

Conscious Proprioception

A
  • purposeful
  • learned/skilled movements
  • fine motor skills
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15
Q

What does the brainstem consist of?

A
  1. Mesencephalon = Midbrain (CN III and IV)
  2. Metencephlon = Pons (CN V) with Cerebellum
  3. Myelencephalon = Medulla oblongata (CN VI-XII)
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16
Q

Field seen by one eye, large monocular fields enable good surveillance of the external world. Good for prey animals.

A
  • Monocular (peripheral) vision

- > Horses have large ones and a very small binocular area

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17
Q

Unconscious proprioception pathway

A
  • Spinocerebellar Tract
  • important for the coordination of automated movements, or gait (gross motor skills)
  • ascend in several tracts in the lateral funiculus and terminate in the ipsilateral cerebellum
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18
Q

When are spinal cord fibers more vulnerable to damage?

A
  • the more superficially they are located and the more they are myelinated
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19
Q

What does damage to the vestibular system typically effect?

A
  • balance system and eye movements
    1. Head tilt (towards lesion)
    2. Circling or rolling (towards lesion)
    3. Pathological nystagmus (slow phase towards the site of the lesion)
    4. Feeling of vertigo (in humans)
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20
Q

What is the analgesia pathway activated by?

A
  • activated by incoming pain, also by high sympathetic tone, excitement, danger, etc
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21
Q

Every 3rd order neuron ends in a designated location of the cortex, aka each area is dedicated to the perception of one sense. This is called the?

A
  • cortical map
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22
Q

Every part of the body is projected to a specific location within its respective cortex area

A
  • point to point mapping (body to cortex)

- > more important body parts are over represented

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23
Q

Spinothalamic tract synapses with the 3rd order neurons in the thalamus and projects to which brain regions

A
  1. Somatosensory Cortex
    - input from A delta fibers = acute pain/localized pain
  2. Reticular Formation/Limbic System
    - input from C fibers
    - dull, aching, burning pain/autonomic responses/emotional and behavioral responses
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24
Q

Contains melanin to absorb stray light and to prevent light scattering for sharper images

A
  • pigment epithelium of the retina
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25
Q

Maintenance of body position in relation to the force of gravity

A
  • static equilibrium

- > registers head tilt and linear movement

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26
Q

An exaggerated pain response to a noxious stimulus

A
  • hyperalgesia
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27
Q

What are the sound receptors of the ears?

A
  • hair cells
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28
Q

Amygdala Highjack

A
  • the limbic system links strong emotions with visceral/autonomic nervous system reactions via the hypothalamus without higher brain involvement
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29
Q

What does it mean if there is no reaction in 1 autonomous zone?

A
  • plexus nerve damage
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30
Q

What are the tip links of hair cells connected to?

A
  • mechanically gated K channel
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31
Q

Damage to extra-pyramidal systems have what signs?

A
  • muscle weakness with spastic paresis/paralysis
  • hyperreflexia
  • slow muscle altrophy
  • > variable signs from complete paralysis to mild gait deficits and postural response deficits (motor ataxia)
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32
Q

Contains photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells

A
  • neural epithelium of the retina
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33
Q

Series of high and low-pressure regions traveling in the same direction within a medium (mechanical energy)

A
  • sound waves
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34
Q

What is responsible for seat of consciousness, wakefulness and sleep?

A
  • Reticular formation, RAS and Thalamus
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35
Q

Pathological pain, or Bad pain. It serves no physiological purpose and persists in the absence of tissue injury

A
  • chronic pain
    -> hypersensitivity of the pain transmission system
    Ex: hyperalgesia and allodynia
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36
Q

G-protein coupled signaling pathway purpose

A
  • transduction of light energy into electrical energy

- > photopigments of rods/cones undergo a conformational change when absorbing light energy

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37
Q

The pyramidal system is very important and well developed in which species?

A
  • primates
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38
Q

What happens when a tactile/pain receptor within a dermatome is stimulated?

A
  • impulses enter spinal cord via spinal nerve
  • transmission to CNS via conscious proprioception via dorsal column/STT
  • Simultaneously, at level C8/T1, collaterals activate the motor neurons innervating the cutaneous trunci muscle causing it to twitch
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39
Q

What is responsible for the conscious experience of the incoming sensory information?

A
  • cerebral cortex
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40
Q

What happens if there is damage to a spinal or plexus nerve?

A
  • loss of touch/pain sensation in the relevant dermatome, or autonomous zone
  • > animal shows no reaction
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41
Q

Spinal Cord Lesion affect on Voluntary motor control

A
  • Motor ataxia

- > UMNs signs, paralysis

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42
Q

If there is damage to the pyramidal system in primates what would you see?

A
  • typical upper motor neuron signs

- > facial and arm/hand muscles (stroke)

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43
Q

Central Sensitization

A
  • “Wind up”

- hyperexcitability of neurons at synapses within the CNS (neuropathic pain) upon strong stimulation

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44
Q

Initiated by changes in light intensity to control the amount of light falling onto the retina

A
  • pupillary light reflex
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45
Q

What is the vestibular organ responsible for?

A
  • sense of balance
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46
Q

A specialized transmitter, receiver sensory system of high frequency sound to locate objects

A
  • echolocation

- > animal hears a three dimensional picture of its surroundings

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47
Q

What do hair cells synapse with?

A
  • first order sensory neurons of the vestibulocochlear nerve
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48
Q

Pathway for Touch

A
  • touch sensitive neurons enter the dorsal column and ascend to the somato-sensory cortex
  • > same pathway as conscious proprioception!
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49
Q

What is phantom pain caused by?

A
  • hyperactive neuromas at the amputation site
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50
Q

What are hair cells embedded in during dynamic equilibrium?

A
  • gelatinous cupula
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51
Q

Visual Pathway - Draw and name

A
  1. Axons exit at optic disc as the optic nerve
  2. In the optic chiasm
    - fibers from nasal portions of retina (Peripheral vision) cross over
    - fibers from the temporal portions of retina (central vision) stay ipsilateral
  3. Optic tract
  4. Thalamus
  5. Optic striations
  6. Visual cortex
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52
Q

Reflection of Sound

A
  • sound is reflected by objects and is perceived via mandibles (inner ear)
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53
Q

Purpose of the photopigments (rods and cones)

A
  • absorb the incoming light energy

- > are receptor molecules

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54
Q

Where adjacent receptive fields overlap to allow precise localization

A
  • sensory field
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55
Q

What are hair cells cilia connected to each other by?

A
  • Tip links
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56
Q

What innervates the cutaneous trunci muscle?

A
  • the lateral thoracic nerve from spinal cord segments C8, or T1
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57
Q

What happens during linear acceleration?

A
  • the otolithic membrane lags behind the actual movement due to its inertia
  • > hair bundles bend in the opposite direction to the movement
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58
Q

Neurons originate in the brain stem, immediately cross over or dont and activate/inhibit the LMNs of limbs, trunk and neck

A
  • extra-pyramidal system
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59
Q

Draw the stick figure man

A
  • did you get it right finally?
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60
Q

Which, rods OR cones, have more photopigments and are stimulated by a single photon

A
  • rods
  • > very sensitive
  • > regenerate slowly, therefore not suitable for strong light conditions
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61
Q

Which photopigment is involved in night vision vs day vision?

A
  1. Night vision = rods

2. Day vision = cones

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62
Q

How does sound transduction occur?

A
  • waves of the basilar membranes push the spiral organ and hair cells against or away from the tectorial membrane, causing electrical changes
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63
Q

The section of tissue innervated by one sensory neuron is called?

A
  • receptive field
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64
Q

Forebrain lesion

A
  1. Mental status = depression
  2. Behavior = altered
  3. Seizures = because hyperactivity of cortical neurons
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65
Q

What happens when hair cells deviate towards each other and there is movement towards the tectorial membrane?

A
  • relaxes the tip links
  • closes K channels
  • hyperpolarization
  • AP frequency decrease
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66
Q

Loudness effects

A
  • the louder the sound, the larger the deviation and the higher the AP frequency
  • > can lead to permanent hair cell damage
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67
Q

Unconscious Proprioception is responsible for which motor skills?

A
  • gross motor skills
  • automated movement
  • gait
68
Q

Purpose of the motor system/upper motor neurons

A
  • to initiate and control voluntary muscle responses
69
Q

First Pain

A
  • “generation of pain”
  • painful impulse causes release of chemicals
  • transmission to the cortex via small myelinated A-delta fibers
  • sharp, immediate, stinging, bright, localized pain
70
Q

Unilateral damage of a vestibular organ or vestibular nuclei causes a difference in firing rate even under resting condition. Results in eye movements without head rotations

A
  • pathological nystagmus
71
Q

Draw Pain pathway in Primates AND Domestic animals

A
  • spinothalamic tract
72
Q

Pupillary Light Reflex Pathway

A
  • does not require conscious vision*
    1. Some fibers of the optic tract “peel off”
    2. Synapse with the pretectal nucleus in the mesencephalon
    3. Activate parasympathetic nuclei of CN III
    4. Ciliary ganglion
    5. Lower motor neuron to circular smooth muscles of the iris
    6. Pupil constriction (miosis)
73
Q

What are hair cells embedded in during static equilibrium?

A
  • a gelatinous otolithic membrane, overlaid with calcium carbonate crystals (otoliths)
74
Q

Which, rods OR cones, have less photopigments and are stimulated by a > 100 photons only

A
  • Cones
  • > high threshold
  • > requires quick regeneration
75
Q

What happens during rotational movement?

A
  • semicircular ducts move, but the endolymph initially lags behind due to inertia
  • crista bends
  • cilia bends
  • transduction channels (tip links) open or close
  • > opposite when rotation stops
76
Q

What is a behavioral pain response indicative of?

A
  • pain perception
  • the pathway to the cortex is functional
    Ex: wincing
77
Q

What is the parietal eye connected to?

A
  • the pineal gland
  • > involved in circadian rhythms and seasonal changes
  • require a light source above their cages
78
Q

What order neuron has a cell body in the dorsal gray horn, enters the white matter and forms ascending tracts within the spinal cords white matter, decussates within the spinal cord or brain stem and terminates/synapses in the thalamus, RAS/RF

A
  • second order neuron
79
Q

What is a positive withdrawal reflex indicative of?

A
  • the local reflex arc is functional
    -> pain perception is not necessary
    Ex: pull back
80
Q

What is affected for a lesion in the spinocerebellar tract?

A
  • gait AND postural responses are affected
81
Q

Spinothalamic Tract (STT)

A
  • For pain transmission, axons of the 2nd order neurons enter here in the lateral funiculus
82
Q

A pain response to a non-noxious stimulus

A
  • allodynia

- > showering when sunburnt

83
Q

For conscious proprioception, where does the 2nd order neuron go?

A
  • the dorsal horn axons of the 2nd order neurons enter the ipsilateral dorsal funiculus as the dorsal column
  • synapses in the medulla with the 3rd order neuron
  • > decussates immediately and ascends to the somatosensory cortex
84
Q

What order neuron ascends in a plexus or spinal nerve towards the spine and terminates/synapses in the dorsal gray horn?

A
  • first order neuron
85
Q

Neurons originate in the motor cortex, decussate in the medulla, descend in the lateral funiculus and synapse with LMNs in ventral horns

A
  • Pyramidal system
86
Q

What species have 4 types of cones including UV light?

A
  • Birds
87
Q

How does hearing occur?

A
  1. external ear directs sound waves into ear canal
  2. sound waves strikes ear drum -> vibration
  3. vibration is transmitted via ossicles to the oval window
88
Q

What is the key to preventing chronic pain?

A
  • preemptive, polymodal analgesia
89
Q

Contraction of radial iris muscles (pupillary dilation) via sympathetic fibers

A
  • mydriasis
90
Q

What is each hair cell connected to?

A
  • a CN VIII neuron
91
Q

How does regeneration of photopigments occur?

A
  • retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to cis-form
  • binds to opsin and regeneration occurs
  • > ready to absorb more light
92
Q

How to test conscious vision?

A
  • observing the animal’s reaction to visual stimuli
  • menace (blink) response test
  • > CN II including visual cortex and CN VII
93
Q

Requires intact conscious and unconscious proprioception to be normal

A
  • postural responses

- > most skilled movements require major muscle groups plus fine motor skills!

94
Q

What would be affected if damage to the ventral horns/roots in sections C6-T2 or L4-S2?

A
  • affects spinal nerves and plexus nerves
  • LMN signs affect forelimb and hindlimb
  • > muscle weakness with flaccid paresis-paralysis
95
Q

Head rotates and eyes remain fixed on current visual field, the eyes rotate against head movement (slow phase). As eyes reach limit of excursion, a sudden quick eye movement with head rotation (quick phase)

A
  • physiological nystagumus
  • > vestibular reflex
  • caused by differences in firing rates between left and right vestibular organs during movement
96
Q

What is the purpose of dermatomal maps?

A
  • to localize nerve lesions
97
Q

Congenital deafness involves what part of the ear?

A
  • spiral organ

- > hypoplasia or aplasia

98
Q

Maintenance of body position in response to sudden movements

A
  • dynamic equilibrium

- > rotational

99
Q

What enables the interpretation of the direction of head tilt or rotation?

A
  • if left hair depolarizes, right hair hyperpolarizes

- > different firing pattern between the left and the right side

100
Q

Regeneration speed of cones/Photopsins

A
  • regenerate fast

- > 50% in 90 seconds

101
Q

Increases light sensitivity and can be present or absent

A
  • tapetum lucidum
102
Q

Parietal Eye is present in what species

A
  • third eye on top of head between eyes

- present in lizards, frogs, some fish/sharks

103
Q

Brainstem Lesions

A
  1. Mental Status = stupor, and coma

2. Gait = UMN signs, rigidity

104
Q

Withdrawal Reflex

A
  • nociceptors transmit stimuli to LMNs to initiate withdrawal reflex
  • > conscious proprioception of pain is not necessary
105
Q

Central Sensitization

A
  • “Wind up”
  • hyperexcitability of neurons at synapses within the CNS (neuropathic pain) upon strong stimulation
  • > triggered by bursts of nociceptor activity
106
Q

Analgesia Pathway

A
  • originates in cortex, thalamus, brainstem
  • descends in the lateral funiculus close to STT
  • forms multiple synapses with ascending pain neurons and ends on inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal gray horns!
107
Q

Nociceptors

A
  • sensory receptors that transduce a noxious stimulus and transmit stimuli via 2/3rd order neurons to the brain for CONSCIOUS proprioception
108
Q

Each plexus nerve contains elements from several spinal nerves and innervates a specific area of the limbs

A
  • Autonomous Zone
109
Q

What does loss of deep pain sensation caudal to a lesion indicate?

A
  • very severe spinal cord damage and carries a grave prognosis
110
Q

Lesion in the Thalamus, optic striations, and visual cortex results in?

A
  • visual deficits

- PLR normal

111
Q

Conscious Proprioception is responsible for which motor skills?

A
  • fine motor skills
  • purposeful
  • learned/skilled movements
112
Q

Pathological pain, or Bad pain. It serves no physiological purpose and persists in the absence of tissue injury

A
  • chronic pain

Ex: hyperalgesia and allodynia

113
Q

What parts of the ear are responsible for equilibrium/balance?

A
  • 3 semicircular canals

- vestibule (utricle and saccule)

114
Q

What does the forebrain consist of?

A
  1. Telencephalon = cortex

2. Diencephalon = thalamus and hypothalamus

115
Q

Major center of emotions, motivation and behavior and memory, long term (olfaction)

A
  • Limbic System
116
Q

Sensory receptors continue to transit impulses as long as the stimulus exists, and frequency decreases only slightly. Keeps CNS apprised of the status of the body. Ex: proprioception, baroreceptors

A
  • slow adaptation = tonic receptors
117
Q

lesion in the pretectum, CN III nucleus, CN III, or ciliary ganglion results in ?

A
  • PLR deficit

- vision normal

118
Q

Which photopigment is stimulated by a wide spectrum of light, mostly in the blue-green wavelength

A
  • rods/rhodopsins
119
Q

How is neurogenic/neuropathic pain elicited?

A
  • elicited by an increased AP frequency due to nerve damage/disease
  • > does not originate form its nociceptive ending
120
Q

If there is damage to the pyramidal system in domestic animals what would you see?

A
  • gait remains mostly normal with mild postural response deficits
  • > mild motor ataxia and mild spasticity
121
Q

What contains a macula?

A
  • the utricle and saccule
122
Q

When would the cutaneous trunci muscle reflex be absent?

A
  • when stimulation of a dermatome is caudal to a spinal cord lesion
123
Q

Frequency vs Amplitude

A
  1. Frequency - pitch

2. Amplitude - loudness

124
Q

What do photopigments consist of and what type of receptors are they?

A
  • G-protein coupled membrane receptors

- Glycoproteins (opsin) and Retinal (Vitamin A derivative)

125
Q

Because of the point-point-projection of pain neurons, the cortex interprets stimulation anywhere along a neuron’s pathway as originating from its nociceptive ending.

A
  • Neurogenic/Neuropathic Pain
    Ex: sciatic pain
  • caused by compression of sciatic nerve at spinal cord level, but experienced as leg pain
126
Q

Maintains subconscious muscle tone and controls larger muscle groups to achieve smooth gait, stable posture, and balance (gross motor skills)

A
    • extra-pyramidal system
127
Q

What happens when hair cells deviate away from each other and there is movement against the tectorial membrane?

A
  • pulls K-gates open, K influx
  • depolarization and release of NT
  • AP frequency increases
128
Q

What genes is congenital deafness associated with?

A
  1. merle gene
    - dilution of hair color
  2. piebald gene
    - amount and distribution of white
    - > incidence increases with the amount of whiteness and blue iris coloration
129
Q

Indirect (consensual) pupillary light reflex

A
  • because of the crossing over in the optic chiasm and in the pretectum, the iris of the opposite eye also constricts
130
Q

Though its dorsal cutaneous branches, each spinal nerve innervates a segment of skin

A
  • Dermatome
131
Q

Cerebellum lesion

A
  • Gait = serious ataxia, but no UMN signs (no loss of muscle strength)
132
Q

Function of the RAS and the thalamus

A
  • filter incoming information and decide what reaches the cortex
133
Q

For pain transmission what neurotransmitters are involved when the 1st/2nd order neurons synapse in the dorsal gray horn?

A
  • Neurotransmitters = glutamate and substance P
134
Q

Compares intended movements with actual movements to coordinate and fine tune

A
  • cerebellum
135
Q

The proprioceptive sense is tested by observing an animal’s?

A
  1. Normal Gait

2. Postural response

136
Q

Where are nociceptors present?

A
  • in all tissues except for the brain and are more numerous in the skin than in deeper tissues
137
Q

Degree of crossing over of fibers in different species: humans, predators, herbivores and snakes

A
  1. Humans - 50% peripheral/central
  2. Predators - 60-70% peripheral
  3. Herbivores - 80-90% peripheral/monocular
  4. Snakes - 100% peripheral
138
Q

Special Senses Pathway

A
  • 1st order neurons run in a cranial sensory nerve in brainstem
  • 2nd order neuron project into thalamic area
  • 3rd order neurons project to cortex area
  • > FOR ALL EXCEPT CN I and II
139
Q

What species has two types of cones, or dichromatic vision?

A
  • most mammals

- > dogs have fewer cones than primates

140
Q

An unpleasant sensory and emotional EXPERIENCE associated with actual or potential tissue damage

A
  • pain
141
Q

Where does the 1st order neurons of the eye go?

A
  • axons leave the eye at the blind spot as the optic nerve
142
Q

What is a positive withdrawal reflex indicative of?

A
  • the local reflex arc is functional

- > pain perception is not necessary

143
Q

Emission of Sonar

A
  • sound of high frequency and intensity is emitted via the larynx, or by clicking of the tongue
144
Q

Cis-retinal fits into an opsin binding site

A
  • Resting, or unstimulated photopigment state
145
Q

What species has 3, or more types of cones for trichromatic vision?

A
  • primates, lower vertebrates
146
Q

What innervates the cutaneous trunci muscle?

A
  • lateral thoracic nerve from spinal cord segments C8, or T1
147
Q

Constriction of circular iris muscles (pupillary constriction) via parasympathetic fibers (CN II and III)

A
  • miosis
148
Q

What order neuron has a cell body in the thalamus/RAS/RF/diencephalon, and projects into the somato-sensory cortex

A
  • third order neuron
149
Q

What are upper motor neurons responsible for?

A
  • initiation of voluntary movements (fine and gross)
  • maintenance of normal muscle tone
  • regulation of posture
150
Q

Requires intact conscious and unconscious proprioception to be normal

A
  • postural responses
151
Q

Pain experienced in a body part that is no longer there

A
  • phantom pain
152
Q

Direct pupillary reflex

A
  • shining light into one eye leads to miosis of the same eye
153
Q

What are the two main systems of the upper motor neuron systems?

A
  1. Pyramidal

2. Extra-pyramidal

154
Q

Sensory receptors adapt within seconds or milliseconds, then stop firing. Geared toward registering quick changes in stimulus strength. Ex: touch, smell

A
  • Rapid adaptation = phasic receptors
155
Q

Spinothalamic Tracts in Primates vs Domestic Animals

A
  1. Primates = contralateral

2. Domestic Animals = ipsilateral and contralateral

156
Q

Special Senses Pathway 1st order neuron ->2nd -> 3rd

A
  • 1st order neurons run in a cranial sensory nerve in brainstem
  • 2nd order neuron project into thalamic area
  • 3rd order neurons project to cortex area
  • > FOR ALL EXCEPT CN I and II
157
Q

Conscious proprioception pathway

A
  • the somato-sensory cortex for acute, conscious perception of body movements
  • important for coordination of skilled, learned movements (fine motor skills)
158
Q

Sits on the basilar membrane in the cochlear duct, surrounded by endolymph, covered by the tectorial membrane. It contains hair cells, or sound receptors

A
  • spiral organ
159
Q

What happens during a head tilt?

A
  • gravity pulls the otolithic membrane in direction of the tilt which bends the hair bundles
160
Q

For conscious proprioception, where does the 2nd order neuron go?

A
  • 2nd order neurons enter the dorsal column
  • synapse in the medulla with the 3rd order neuron
  • > decussate in the medulla
  • ascend to the somatosensory cortex
161
Q

Field seen by both eyes, enables three dimensional vision and is crucial for predatory animals

A
  • binocular (central) vision

- > cats have a larger one than horses for example

162
Q

Regeneration speed of Rods/Rhodopsins

A
  • regenerate slowly

- > 50% in 5 min, 100% in 30-40 min

163
Q

What parts of the ear are responsible for hearing?

A
  • cochlea
164
Q

In an extreme situation, which pathway can moderate, or inhibit pain (life saving mechanism)

A
  • descending analgesia pathways
165
Q

1 ganglion typically receives input from multiple photoreceptors

A
  • receptive field
166
Q

How to test for congenital deafness in puppies?

A
  • routinely done at 6-8 weeks of age using the BAER test (brainstem-auditory-evoked potential)
167
Q

Controls those muscles necessary for more involved, skilled, learned voluntary movements, requiring conscious thought and dexterity (Fine motor skills)

A
  • pyramidal system

Physiology II (3 decks)

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