End of Rome Impacts
End of the idea of the State and Empire. Only reprised in Early Modern Europe. Local warlords made claims to land. Feudalism became predominant. Law and power became personal. Church Power
Last Emperor of Rome (sort of)
Romulus Augustule Odoacrus.
Feudalism
System where land and protection are exchanged for fidelity, taxes, ransom, and service to the King. Fragmentation of Europe under this system. Heirarchy of serfs and peasants at the bottom.
Religious Breaks
Great Schism of 1054. Orthodox vs Catholic. Christianity vs Islam 7th century muslim invasion.
How Christianity Spread
Clovis, German emperor christianized to gain support and helped its spread in 498. Church growing in power due to crusades and fear of sin (1096). Investiture Contest. Gregorian Chant of allegiance. Gregory declared only the pope could name bishops. Pope excommunicated emperors.
Dante
Wrote Dante’s inferno with separate levels of hell for different sinners. Punishments brutal and awful for various sins. Ancient pagans got their own level of happiness. Indulgences payed to get your soul to heaven with extra holiness from Jesus’ sacrifice.
Society and the Economy
Tripartite division between nobles, the clergy, and peasants. Huge decline of the economy until the 11th century when cities were established and peasants became more free with surplus of stuff. Black plague and famine in 1347 almost undid all that work though.
Printing Press
Printing press from Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoffer. Knowledge became more accurate, full, collaborative, and accessible. New learned class in the cities.
Warfare
Trebuchet, gunpowder, Constantinople 1453, Strengthening of emerging national monarchies. Nobility lost powers. Less reliance on nobles.
New Science
Medieval world where earth physics =/= heaven physics. Copernicus (1473 to 1543) ended geocentrism, brought on the homogenous universe, rupture between observation and scientific evidence, but the Universe was just as finite as before. Giordano Bruno (1548 -1600) Argued universe was infinite, but was burnt at the stake. Galileo used the telescope for observations. Ptolemy had an okay worldview that was used to as a basis for exploration.
Beginning of the Renaissance
Famine and Plague in 14th century killed tons of people. Italy recovered first and became the heart of the Renaissance. Italy, being at the center of the Mediterranean was able to become the commercial center of Europe. Crusades allowed the Italians to discover arabs and set up trading posts.
Popolo Grasso
Wealthy merchants and urbanized nobility
Popolo Minuto
Shopkeepers, workers, etc
The age of Republics
Decline of Italian economy was limited and by 1250 commercial city states had become wealthy and powerful. This is due to its central location.
Humanism
Education and Cultural program based on study of the classics and colored by the notion of human dignity.
Patrarch
(1304 - 1374) Ascent to Mont Ventoux. Augustine’s confessions. Intense exploration of human personality and mind.
Dante
13th and 14th centuries. Wrote the divine comedy. Exiled from Florence.
Machiavelli
15th and 16th century. Read a lot on the classics and wrote a lot on politics.
Lorenzo Valla
First modern historian. Proved the donation of Constantine was a ruse. Variety of approaches to the classics. New understanding of history.
Humanist Education vs Medieval Education
Gives people freedom and dignity vs. Trained specialists focused on trivium, grammar, rhetoric, logic. Quadrivium, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. Humanists focused on language, history, philosophy, trained generalists. Why? To govern and organize.
Virtue
Was not inherited, but taught. Greek and latin. Moral philosophy. History. Physical education. Sons of merchants and nobles attended humanist schools.
Nogarola
Woman intellectual. Pushed to be such by father.
Vergerio
Liberal arts made one free
Pico della Mirandola
God gave us critical thinking to THINK. Knowledge was freedom.
The arts
Artists sought to revive the treasures of the past. Focused on the human form, perspective, and the third dimension. Giotto was a precursor to the more famed artists.
Giotto
1267-1337, precursor to Renaissance artist.
Doors of the Baptistery
1401 Wool Guild competition. 2 finalists: Brunelleschi and Ghiberti. Ghiberti won.
Brunelleschi
Competitor in doors of the baptistery and the Florence Cathedral. First to study the art of 3D systematically.
Florence’s Cathedral
Construction began 1296, mostly finished by 15th century. Brunelleschi and Ghiberti hired to solve the problem of the dome. Hired to solve the problems of wooden support, lifting marble, supporting the lantern, and ensuring the dome won’t collapse. Brunelleschi faked sick to screw Ghiberti.
High Renaissance art
Centralized in Rome, major players being Michelangelo and Raphael. Michelangelo hired for sistine chapel.
Renaissance Papacy
Pope and cardinals wealthy and led luxurious lives. Had many affairs and illegitimate children. Personally led armies. Renaissance princes.
Capitalism
1460 - 1560 shift from craft production to industrial production. Class tensions between workers and the bourgeois.
Art patronage
Art became a social event. The art market became prevalent. 3 ways for art to be sold. Artists produced work in studio and seeks buyer. Patron commissions work. Artist lives in patron’s household.
Florence
Large banking families: Medici, Pazzi, Peruzzi. Required lots of math. Ciompi: unguilded wool workers: 1378 revolt. From republic to despotic city. (Despot has all power. Oligarchy)
Venice
Shipbuilding arsenale. 1297 Serrata (closure) of the high council. Fishing village -> merchant republic -> oligarchy of few elite families. Enough social mobility to prevent unrest.
Why did Florence and Venice turn from republicanism?
Revolt of the popolo. By 1500 most republics became signorie, ruled by despot. Fragmentation of Italy.
Ciompi
Unguilded wool workers who attacked government buildings in revolt of oppression of lower classes.
Discovery
The drive to reach goods and become wealthy without reliance on Italian and Arabic merchants was the driver. Spain first to discover the new world.
Economic Expansion
Spain, England, Dutch expanded their empires. Stock markets emerged. Increased agricultural productivity. Global trade and exchange techniques were developed.
Capitalism vs Traditional Morality
Poverty and accumulation of wealth contrasted with old christian values. Individual stressed over community. Brecht stated “first one must fill his belly, then think of others”. Max Weber argued for capitalism and protestant ethics being aligned.
Medieval Church
A common experience. Fear of sin and salvation. Papal supremacy in the west. By the 13th century there was established a common text, a common language, canon law, and a group of professional clergy.
Crises of the Church
1309 Clement V moves to avignon during the Babylonian captivity. Western Schism of 1378. 1417 Cardinals split and elected 3 popes. Martin V returned to Rome. Renaissance Papacy had to reassert papal authority and reclaim control of Italian cities and deal with external threats.
Martin Luther
Described as a man with seven heads. 1517 95 theses. Asserted belief and faith in christ is all that mattered. Fought against indulgences.
Loyola and the Catholic Reformation
Wrote of spiritual exercises. Lived from 1491 - 1556. Founded the Jesuits (society of jesus). “Company of soldiers sworn to protect the faith but weapons were eloquence, persuasion, and education”. Shock troops against protestantism. The black pope.
Results of first 2 reforms
Mixed results. Resulted in education, diffusion of ideas, and attempts to educate lower classes. More rigidity of the religious system, tighter control of people, and strengthening of the inquisition.
Witchcraft
1580 - 1660 prosecution of women mostly for witchcraft. Germany especially prevalent. Committed by both Catholics and Protestants. Superstitions strong and women looked down upon. People were insecure due to changes.
German peasantry and adoption of lutheranism.
Rebellion against aristocracy in Germany. Luther had many ideas about helping the poor, and over the anxiety of accumulation of wealth. All christians are free. Luther said even christians could be slaves. Lutheranism became a church that depended on church support. Divided Germany.
Reasons for conversion
Economic roles. Cultural roles. Fear of hell. Politics. Burghers converted because the middle and lower classes were attracted to protestantism. Princes had no simple formula. Charles V of Germany, Henry VIII of England, and Francis I of France all created territorial churches. Holy Roman Empire was divided by religion. Politics and war limited choice.
German Wars of Religion
Peace of Augsburg 1555, Charles V (as the ruler, so the religion). Wars of religion strengthened monarchies all over Europe. Charles asked for the help of the Church, but they didn’t lend him help.
Jews
Treated as second class citizens. Expanded all over Europe. Synagogues allowed but had to be less opulent than churches. Jews could not employ Christians. Jews had same origin as Christians. Spain tried to insist on conversos, to convert Jews.
Italians and Jews
Italians forced Jews in the Ghetto. Foundry. Doors closed at night. Ghetto became vibrant jewish community. Ghetto Nuovo enlarged in 1516, so Ghetto Nuovo. Ghetto Vicchio in 1541 for levantine Jews.
Ghetto
Doors closed at night. Vibrant community. Ghetto enlarged for levantine jews. High rise apartments etc.
Edict of Nantes
Protestants can practice religion in private.
Henry of Navarre
Also Henry III and later Henry IV. A Huguenot (french calvinist), was forced by the people to convert to Catholicism. Duke of the House of Bourbon.
St. Bartholomew Massacre
Massacre of Huguenots by catholics in France. Occurred after marriage of Margaret and Henry.
Phillip II
Son of Charles V. King of Spain. Set up strong bureaucracy.
Netherlands Revolt
1560s. Brutal Spanish repression. 1648 Treat of Munster (Westphalia) ended the war. Phillip wanted to keep hold due to his resentment of not being Holy Roman Emperor. Dutch became strong with a fleet that rivaled English and Spanish. Long bloody war attributed to the decline of the Spanish Empire.
30 Years’ War
1618 - 1648. German war of religion that quickly expanded throughout Europe. Rivalry between Hapsburgs and other European powers. 30% of German population died due to disease and soldier brutality. Women and children were involved in supporting the armies. Belligerents were Spain, Prussia, Bohemia, France, and Denmark. Ended with Treaty of Westphalia.
Treaty of Westphalia
Diplomacy between nations. Redrew some borders in Europe. Changed relationship of subjects to their rulers. Citizens of a nation were subject first and foremost to laws of their own nation. No longer a personal relationship of law.
Feudalism
Different social structure from that of today’s world. Taxation, war, justice administration, and lawmaking were all privately owned responsibilities. Public power and private property were confused and the same. Kings were quite weak. No permanence or continuity.
Hugh Capet
Was a noble who owned land called France. Anointed King of domain as a weak person in what is known today as the Capetian Miracle. Initialized the hereditary monarchy. His progeny had many sons and thus his dynasty could carry on. Kingdom united. Sons were anointed kings during the father’s lifetime. During the 100 years’ war Capet anointed his son king while he went to war.
War of Religion in France
Transition from Valois to Bourbon in royalty. Principle of catholicity established, and only catholics could become king. Henry of Bourbon (Navarre) converted to Catholicism.
Feudal Monarchy
King’s power is due to his position at the top of the feudal pyramid scheme. Aristocrats’ land was reclaimed by the monarchy. King was the head of the body we call the kingdom. The crown was an abstract symbol, such that the royalty was separate from the king. If the King died, there was continuity in head of state.
Early Modern State
Sovereignty and monopoly on violence. Orders from nobody but itself. King was absolute, in that all power was in his hands. Right to tax was the king’s, and he was head of the bureaucracy. Had a divine claim to authority. History gave them these claims. History was propaganda.
Royal Officers
The royal council was the innermost level. At the local level there were attempts to bring law and order to the lowest levels of the kingdom and build a network of loyal civil servants.. Spain had Corregidor whom could not work near home. England had the Justices of the Peace, volunteers of noblemen. France had the Baillis or Senechaux whom were appointed by the king and sold the office. Venality of the officers was an issue.
Army of the Early Modern State
Mercenary army made up of various nationalities. Nationalism and loyalty was lacking. Permanent armies were thus required and only the King was allowed to own an army.
Finances of the Early Modern State
Constant problem for all kings. Taxation was right of the royal domain, but only indirectly. Direct taxation was a struggle between the King and parliament. Borrowing was an alternative, but there was a risk of defaulting (Spain in 1557).
New Visions of the State
By 1648 Europe had taken on a more familiar form of borders. But the Holy Roman Empire was a mess. The nation state was not the obvious outcome though, so that was okay.
Failed State of the Holy Roman Empire
Charles V was emperor in only name. Gained his power from his father being the Duke of Burgundy and his mother being a Spanish Princess. Grandfather was Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. He was elected emperor by the aristocrats of HRE. Every time there was an election there was instability.
Charles V
Spain, Burgundy, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spanish America was one sect. Holy Roman Empire, European mediterranean empire was another. His empire was transatlantic. The empire itself took on a medieval form, but the dukedoms were developing modern nation-state mentality.
How Diplomacy changed the world
Shifted balance of power, changed the role of military power, created professional diplomats.
Absolutism
Absolute power invested in an individual. Was needed to maintain balance of power and ensure peace in Europe. If Military was strong, peace could be assured and deter war.
Jean Bodin
(1530 - 1596) No limits to king’s power. Power is necessary and essential to royalty (inherent to royalty). Perpetual, absolute, unique, and indivisible. Justice, divine, and natural law are limits to King’s power.
Thomas Hobbes
(1588 - 1679) Only absolutism can save society from constant war. fAbsolutism was a social contract that people entered voluntarily to exchange stability and security for rights. King was beholden/chosen by god.
Characteristics of absolutism.
Strong ambitious dynasty passed from father to son. Nobles traded local power for administrative powers. Representative institutions. Expanding state structures and responsibilities. Royal armies were loyal, protective, and expensive. Great monumental architecture. Propaganda.
Constitutionalism
Dutch Republic and England maintained parliaments. Dutch were mercantile and England was Royal. Both protestant and had vibrant middle classes.
English Civil War
Caused by a division between CoE and Puritans. Charles I wanted $$$ for wars, and taxation was an issue. Crisis occurred over the constitution and what the roles of Parliament and King were. War between king and parliament ensued, leading to King’s exile. Brought back but acted ruthlessly. In 1647 the King was captured and executed by Cromwell-led parliament. Puritan Republic established. 1689 Bill of Rights established.
Atlantic System
The movement of goods and slaves across the Atlantic.
World Economy
Tobacco, coffee, sugar, potatoes were goods. Slavery was free labor for both public and private. 11 million African slaves. Before 1850 1.4 million died on trip.
Spanish decline
After the 30 years’ war, Spain declined when it lost its whole Armada in invasion of England.
Dutch government
Parliamentary like England, but rich traders got spots in Parliament. World traders.
Consumer society
Describes the love of stuff in Europe. Christians had a dilemma because of materialism and the free market cutting those in need out.
Agricultural Revolution
New techniques of farming caused huge increases in food production in grains and meat. Farms became larger. Prices went down and more people could be fed and supported.
Life in Cities
Gross public hygiene. City culture unique. Middle class read a lot and the enlightenment began in the coffee shops the middle class attended.
Consolidation of State System
3 conflicts between 1690 and 1740. Louis XIV wanted to expand hugely. His successor focused on building France internally. England’s armada that was unrivaled, as well as had a national bank where merchants could be funded . Russia emerged as a power after beating Sweden, Peter the great westernized Russia and made a Navy. Emulated French clothing and culture. Military strengthened and nobility worked for state.
John Locke
Invented the social contract. Power comes from contract between citizens. Not divine. State of nature is peace, and government protects life, liberty, and property. People rise against government if they think it is unjust or does not fulfill these roles.
Libertines
Underground organization and movement towards intellectualism. Proto atheists or pantheists. Exercised tolerance. Had to be middle class or greater since peasants worked all day.
Pantheists
God is in everything and everything has some divinity in it.
Reason
The ability to think critically for oneself.
Philosophers of Enlightenment Period
Rejected authoritarianism, hailed reason, enlightened despotism, moved towards light (knowledge) and rejected the dark (closed minds).
Philosophes
the name of philosophers.
Kant
stated “Dare to Know!” Use of own faculties.
Encyclopedia of Diderot and d’Alembert
20 years of compilation of writings of philosophes. Comprehensive overview of all knowledge for present and future enlightenment thinkers. Philosophy, history, religion, science, and technology all discussed. Progress.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Wrote the discourse on science and arts in 1750, and the discourse on the origins of inequality in 1755. Came to the conclusions that progress caused moral degeneration, and that the state of nature is naturally good. Social contract was that law and community came first. Government exists to serve the people. Was cynical and saw many problems in society. Man and woman existed as generalists and could achieve most anything. Hoped to change social system.
Goethe
An optimist. Wrote the universal man. Romantic, writing of Sturm und Drang style about the suffering of young Werther. Invented the bildungsroman form. Faust was a doctor who sold his soul to the devil.
Mozart
Wrote 600 pieces of music in 36 years. His music was influenced by the enlightenment and can make fun of society and nobility.
French Revolution Effects
Promised human rights and constitutional government with broad political participation. Liberty, equality, and fraternity promised. Abolished nobility and royalty in the end. First republic. New cycle of violence and intimidation and invented totalitarianism. More wars spread revolutionary ideas everywhere.
Beginning the revolution
Estates general called to discuss taxation. 1789 1200 deputies. Met but could not come to agreements on being represented fairly.
Jacques Necker
Finance officer of Louis XVI that was sympathetic to the revolution. Fired and sparked Bastille day.
Tennis court oath
Oath that 3rd estate would not disband until demands met. Created national assembly.
Great Fear
Food shortages in countryside. Anger towards monarchy.
Declaration of the RIghts of Man
1789