Paper 3: Issues And Debates

Question 1

What side does the biological approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 1

Biological determinism
behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors eg: genes, hormones and neurotransmitters

Question 2

What side does the biological approach take in the Nature vs nurture debate

Answer 2

Nature
behaviour is the result of innate biological factors eg: Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters

Question 3

What side does the biological approach take in the Reductionism v holism debate

Answer 3

Biological reductionism
behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes

Question 4

What side does the biological approach take in the Ideographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 4

Nomothetic
creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiologies

Question 5

Is the biological approach scientific?

Answer 5

Yes, the biological approach promotes scientific methods of investigation e.g. brain imaging

Question 6

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 6

Environmental determinism
behaviour is controlled by stimulus-response conditioning

Question 7

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 7

Nurture
humans and born as a tabula rasa and behaviour is learned through operant and classical conditioning through the environmental stimulus-response link

Question 8

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate

Answer 8

Environmental reductionism
Behaviour is broken down into a simple stimulus-response link

Question 9

What side does the behaviourist approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 9

Nomothetic
Creates universal laws as behaviour is the result of a stimulus response link

Question 10

Is the behaviourist approach scientific

Answer 10

Yes, behaviourist approach utilises scientific methods of investigation e.g. lab experiments and animal research

Question 11

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 11

Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by environmental forces however, humans have a personal responsibility and free choice

Question 12

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 12

Nurture
Behaviour is learnt from observation, imitation and modelling and vicarious reinforcement

Question 13

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate

Answer 13

Partially reductionist
Shares elements of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches

Question 14

What side does the social learning theory approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate

Answer 14

Nomothetic
attempts to establish general laws of behaviour e.g. vicarious reinforcement

Question 15

Is the social learning theory scientific?

Answer 15

Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods but also takes into account mediational process

Question 16

What side does the cognitive approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 16

Soft determinism
Behaviour is controlled by mediational processes that humans can choose what info they attend to

Question 17

What side does the cognitive approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 17

Both
Behaviour is the product of info processing and modified by experience

Question 18

What side does the cognitive approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 18

Experimental reductionism
Behaviours investigated in terms of isolated variables (eg: capacity of STM)

Question 19

What side does the cognitive approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 19

Both,
Attempts to establish general laws of cognitive processing but utilises an idiographic approach with case studies

Question 20

Is the cognitive approach scientific?

Answer 20

Mostly scientific
Utilises scientific methods of investigation but researchers are unable to directly observe cognitive processes

Question 21

What side does the psychodynamic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 21

Psychic determinism
Behaviours determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences

Question 22

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 22

Mostly nature
Behaviours the product of innate drives, but shaped by early childhood experiences

Question 23

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 23

Both,
Behaviours reduced to innate drives, while taking into account the multiple aspects of human behaviour

Question 24

What side does the pyschodynamic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 24

Both
Attempts to establish general laws in relation to innate drives, while considering unique experiences during childhood

Question 25

Is the psychodynamic approach scientific

Answer 25

Not scientific Examines many concepts and theories which can’t be empirically tested. Relies on subjective interpretation

Question 26

What side does the humanistic approach take in the free will vs determinism debate?

Answer 26

Free will Humans control their own environment and are capable of change

Question 27

What side does the humanistic approach take in the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 27

Mostly nurture Behaviours shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self-actualisation

Question 28

What side does the humanistic approach take in the reductionism vs holism debate?

Answer 28

Holism Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience and interaction

Question 29

What side does the humanistic approach take in the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?

Answer 29

Idiographic Focuses on the subjective human experience and makes no attempt to create general laws

Question 30

Is the humanistic approach scientific

Answer 30

Not scientific Rejects scientific methods and is unable to provide empirical evidence

Question 31

1: Gender What does universality mean?

Answer 31

Concept that conclusions can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture Bias is a threat to universality as it can limit the generalisability to only a subset of the wider population Adopting a universal approach can result in research that is subjective and laden with value judgment

Question 32

1: Gender Give 2 examples of universality

Answer 32

Milgram's (1963) obedience study used only male participants which limits the extent of its generalisability and its usefulness Bowlby's attachment theory (initially at least) assumed that the mother is the primary caregiver and his maternal deprivation hypothesis places the burden of dysfunctional attachment on women rather than a shared responsibility between both parents Men are equally important in terms of both healthy and unhealthy attachment behaviours

Question 33

1: Gender What does bias mean?

Answer 33

bias refers to any factor (eg: attitudes, beliefs) that interferes with the validity (i.e. the ‘truth’) of the research process Bias may lead to researchers forming conclusions which favour universality

Question 34

1: Gender What is gender bias?

Answer 34

The differential treatment or representation of men and women eg: favoured or discriminated, based on stereotypes rather than real difference

Question 35

1: Gender What is androcentrism?

Answer 35

androcentrism means dominated by the males or male viewpoint. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world. this can affect research as it provides a potentially misleading/inaccurate representation of how one sex (usually females) will respond in a given situation and can lead to alpha or beta bias

Question 36

1: Gender Give examples of classic studies in psychology, and explain how they may show an androcentric bias

Answer 36

Milgram (1963), Asch (1951) and Zimbardo (1973) used all-male samples to draw conclusions about the nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles This assumes that the findings from this research represent a general population when in fact 50% of the population was unrepresented in each study

Question 37

1: Gender What biases can androcentrism lead to?

Answer 37

Beta and alpha bias

Question 38

1: Gender What is a consequence of alpha bias?

Answer 38

Caused by attempting to avoid universality Alpha bias occurs when researchers over-emphasize the differences between males and females e.g. males are competitive; females are caring Alpha bias usually favours males and de-values females (possibly because most psychological research has been conducted by males) Differences between males and females allow for no flexibility when it comes to alpha bias

Question 39

1: Gender Give 2 examples of 2 studies which demonstrate alpha bias

Answer 39

Freud's psychodynamic theory can imply that women are essentially inferior to men and argued girls don’t suffer the same Oedipal conflict as boys, they don’t identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their father, so develop weaker superego Schizophrenia is diagnosed more frequently in men which means that women may have to try harder to mask their symptoms or they may believe that there is nothing wrong with them i.e. they are just being 'hysterical'

Question 40

1: Gender What is beta bias?

Answer 40

Caused by trying to assume universality Beta bias occurs when researchers ignore or downplay differences between males and females e.g. the complete absence of females in a sample means that conclusions drawn are applied to both males and females alike, with no acknowledgement that females may respond differently to males within that given context

Question 41

1: Gender Give examples of beta bias

Answer 41

The fight-or-flight response is based on the male experience which can only explain male biological mechanisms. Taylor suggets that the higher presence of oxytocin reduces fight or flight in women and promotes the tend/befriend Ash, Milgram, Zimbardo: used all-male samples to draw conclusions about nature of, respectively, destructive obedience, normative conformity and conformity to social roles

Question 42

1: Gender How do animal studies demonstrate beta bias?

Question 43

1: Gender How can gender bias be overcome?

Question 44

1: Gender 2 advantages of the focus on gender bias

Answer 44

P: research in gender bias has led to contemporary psychology’s looking for ways to reduce it and increase value of women in society Eg: Cornwell fond that females showed advantages in learning, showing more attentive and organised, this emphasising the positive attributes of women Ex: therefore by acknowledging the differences some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women L: as a result this type of research helps to overcome sexist attitudes and bias in research publications, therefore has application to society in the form of supporting social policies that promote gender equality P: A strength in addressing gender bias in psychological research is the emphasis on implementing non-gender biased research criteria. Eg: Worrell developed several criteria for this, including using alternative methods to explore women’s personal lives, considering them within their natural settings, and collaborating with participants to examine personally relevant variables. Ex: These criteria help researchers avoid biases common in traditional approaches, which may not capture the lived experiences of women. For example, traditional lab settings often overlook the context of women's lives, leading to misinterpretation of data. L: This approach has real-world applications, as it promotes studying diverse samples, making findings more representative and applicable to a wider range of women, thereby reducing gender bias in psychological research.

Question 45

1: Gender 2 limitations of gender bias research

Answer 45

Sexist attitudes produce gender biased research P: a limitation in the research process is the pro essence of sexism which has led to androcentrism Eg: Murphy argues that research is more likely to be conducted by males, as there is a lack of women appointed at senior research positions in universities Ex: This may disadvantage females. For example a male researcher may expect female ppts to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson) L: this has application to society as it means that the institution pal structures and methods of psychology may produce findings which are gender biased Under publishing of gender confronting research P: a limitation is that research which challenges gender bias is often not published Eg: Formanwicz analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias and found that such research is funded less and is featured in less prestigious journals Ex: this still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bais, when other factors were controlled L: this suggests that gender bias may still not be taken as seriously as other types of bias in the research process, implying that the research has yet to have seen full application in society

Question 46

2: Culture What is the definition of ‘cultural bias’?

Answer 46

Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions Most of psychological research tends to suffer from a western bias and it’s assumed the findings can be applied to other cultures Adopting a universal bias can involve culture bias The overwhelming majority of psychology research has investigated samples of participants from the USA or other wealthy Western individualistic countries This presents a skewed and unrepresentative view of human behaviour

Question 47

2: culture What are WEIRD people?

Answer 47

Henrick noted that ‘WERID’ people were most likely to be studied by psychologists Western Educated Industrialised Rich Democratic

Question 48

2: culture What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 48

Seeing the world only from one own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. An example of cultural bias and if unchecked can produce an imposed etic.

Question 49

2: culture Give an example of ethnocentrism

Answer 49

Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation' study, the findings reflected a very White, Western, individualistic perspective e.g. it is normal for securely attached children to show some separation anxiety it is abnormal (insecure attachment type resistant) to show too much separation anxiety it is abnormal (insecure attachment type avoidant) to show independence from the caregiver

Question 50

2: culture What is cultural relativism?

Answer 50

Cultural relativism is the idea that cultures can only be understood from within that culture Researchers can achieve this by taking an emic approach

Question 51

2: culture Give an example of cultural relativism

Answer 51

Meaning of intelligence is different in every culture Sternberg pointed out that coordination skills that may e essential to life in a pre literate society may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more developed society So the only way to understand intelligence is to take the cultural context into account

Question 52

2: culture Who proposed the etic v emic approach and imposed etic?

Answer 52

Berry

Question 53

2: culture What is the ‘etic’ approach?

Answer 53

Outside Looks at behaviour from outside a culture and identifies behaviours that’s are universal

Question 54

2: culture What is the ‘emic’ approach?

Answer 54

Functions from inside a culture, and identifies behaviours that are specific to the culture Inside

Question 55

2: culture What does ‘imposed etic’ mean?

Answer 55

Ainsworh and Bell studied behaviours inside a single culture (America) and assumed the ideal attachemnt type could be applied universally

Question 56

2: culture What does alpha bias mean with regard to culture?

Answer 56

Occurs when a theory assumes that cultural forums are profoundly different

Question 57

2: culture What is beta bias with regard to culture?

Answer 57

Occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same , resulting in universal research designs and conclusions

Question 58

2: culture What is universality with regard to culture?

Answer 58

The idea that conclusions drawn in psychological can be applied to everyone body everywhere regardless of time or culture

Question 59

2: culture 1 strength of research into culture

Answer 59

P: A strength of addressing cultural bias in psychological research is the distinction between universal behaviors and culture-specific ones. Eg: Ekman’s cross-cultural studies showed that basic facial expressions like anger, guilt, and disgust are universally recognized, indicating they are biologically predetermined. Ex: In attachment research, Tronick et al.'s 'Still Face' experiment found universal infant-caregiver interactions, with infants across cultures reacting similarly to the caregiver’s withdrawal. C: While attachment behaviors are universal, caregiving aspects like independence versus interdependence vary across cultures. Focusing too much on universality can lead to ethnocentric bias, as shown by Takahashi’s finding that the Strange Situation misinterprets behaviors in Japanese infants. L: Identifying universal behaviors is important, but considering cultural contexts is equally crucial.

Question 60

2: culture 2 limitations of research into culture

Answer 60

P: A limitation of classic psychological studies is cultural bias, limiting generalisability. Eg: Smith and Bond found that 66% of studies in a European social psychology textbook were American, with only 2% from other regions. Asch’s and Milgram’s studies, conducted with white, middle-class American participants, don’t reflect other cultures. Ex: Replications in collectivist cultures showed variations—Asch-type studies in Asia found much higher conformity rates than in the US. C: The distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures may be less significant today due to global media and exchange. Takano and Osaka found no significant cultural differences in 14 out of 15 studies. L: A more nuanced understanding of cultural influences is needed, acknowledging culture’s evolving nature to improve cross-cultural research validity. P: A limitation in psychological research is the perpetuation of ethnic stereotyping, with social and ethical consequences. Eg: Gould analyzed the first American intelligence tests, showing they promoted eugenic policies based on the false belief that intelligence varied across ethnic groups. Ex: During WW1, IQ tests given to 1.75 million recruits had cultural biases that disadvantaged non-Western participants, resulting in misinterpretations of lower scores as genetic inferiority, reinforcing racism. L: This highlights the need for culturally sensitive research practices to avoid perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination.

Question 61

3: free will and determinism What is free will?

Answer 61

The idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined so have agency over our actions

Question 62

3: free will and determinism What is determinism?

Answer 62

The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control so our behaviour is viewed as predictable.

Question 63

3: free will and determinism What is hard determinism?

Answer 63

The view that forces outside of our control (eg: biology or past experience) shape all our behaviour, so there can be no free will Eg: behaviourism suggests all behaviour is learnt. Biological approach sees behaviour as the product of our genes and neurochemistry

Question 64

3: free will and determinism What is soft determinism?

Answer 64

The view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up. But omly to a certain extent and there’s an element of free will in behaviour. Eg: cognitive approach suggests individuals can reason and makedecisioms within the limits of their cognitive system

Question 65

3: free will and determinism What is biological determinism?

Answer 65

Idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes For example, the MAOA gene as a candidate gene for aggression

Question 66

3: free will and determinism What is environmental determinism?

Answer 66

The view that our behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore behaviour is caused by previous experiments learned through classical and operant conditioning. Eg: phobias are learned through conditioning

Question 67

3: free will and determinism What is psychic determinism?

Answer 67

Claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (Id, ego and superego) as in Freuds model of psychosexual behaviour. For example Freuds psychosexual stages of development, each characterised by conflict which if unresolved, leads to fixation in adulthood

Question 68

3: free will and determinism Strengths of determism and free will

Answer 68

P: A strength of the free will argument is its face validity; everyday experience suggests we exercise free will through the choices we make daily. Eg: Roberts found that adolescents who believed their lives were controlled by external factors (fatalism) were more likely to develop depression. Ex: This suggests that having an internal locus of control, believing we influence our lives, is associated with better mental health. L: This implies that even if free will is an illusion, the perception of it can positively impact mental well-being.

Question 69

3: free will and determinism Limitatioms of determinism and free will

Answer 69

P: A limitation of the free will argument comes from neurological evidence supporting determinism. Eg: Libet found that brain activity in motor areas occurred before participants consciously decided to move their finger, suggesting that what we perceive as a conscious decision may actually be a pre-determined action, with consciousness acting as a "read out." Ex: Further studies show that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex occurs up to 10 seconds before conscious decision-making, implying that actions may be initiated unconsciously. This supports the idea that free will could be an illusion. C: Some argue that conscious awareness may still play a role in vetoing pre-initiated actions, known as "free won't." L: This suggests a nuanced relationship between determinism and free will, where conscious choice may still influence actions within a deterministic framework. P: A limitation of determinism is that it oversimplifies human behavior, failing to account for its complexity. Eg: Aggression cannot be solely explained by biological factors like adrenaline; cognitive factors and emotions play a crucial role and are often more influential. Ex: Human behavior is less rigid than that of non-human animals, as it's influenced by cognitive processes that can override biological impulses. L: This weakens the validity of determinism when applied to human behavior, as it overlooks the complexity of cognitive, emotional, and social factors that shape actions.

Question 70

4: nature vs nurture What aspect does ‘nature’ focus on as driving behavior?

Answer 70

Inherited influences (hereditary) Nativists (eg, Descartes): some characteristics and knowledge are innate Psychological characteristics (intelligence and personality) are determined by biological factors (genes) just like physical factors

Question 71

4: nature vs nurture What philosophical tradition does nature follow on from?

Answer 71

Heredity: the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring. Can be qualified (eg hereditary coefficient of intelligence is 0.5) – Plomin et al.) so influences of nature and nurture are equal

Question 72

4: nature vs nurture What does the ‘nature’ position propose about psychological characteristics?

Answer 72

Influence of experience/environment Empiricists (eg: Lock) the mind is a blank state (tabula rasa) layer shaped by experience Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences eg: mothers physiological and psychological state……

Question 73

4: nature vs nurture Which psychological approach does nurture most closely aligned with?

Answer 73

Behaviourist approach

Question 74

4: nature vs nurture What is the interactionist approach?

Answer 74

Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. The nature nurture debate is now out of date instead psychologists consider relative contribution made by both nature and nurture

Question 75

4: nature vs nurture What is the diathesis-stress model?

Answer 75

Behaviour is caused by biological factors / genetic variability. And is triggered by environmental stressors

Question 76

4: nature vs nurture How is epigenetics seen to influence psychology?

Answer 76

A change in genetic activity (switching genes on and off) without a change in the genetic code. as a result of environmental changes (eg diet, stress, toxins). Some epigenetic modifications can be passed from one generation to the next, meaning that the environmental factors influencing your parents or grandparents can impact your gene expression so changes gene expression and therefore changes your phenotype

Question 77

4: nature vs nurture Provide examples of the interactionist approach

Answer 77

Concordance rates for schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins. This illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder But concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100% despite being genetically identical suggesting that nurture and environment also plays a significant role in Development. An infant’s interaction type may be driven by the interaction of parental warmth (Bowlby, 1965), an environmental influence, which is itself influenced by the baby’s temperament (Kagan, 1984) Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement. • He acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger displayed by the identified role models).

Question 78

4: nature vs nurture Provide an example of the diathesis stress model

Answer 78

Patients with schizophrenia have a genetic vulnerability, but this is only expressed if they come into contact with environmental triggers (stressors), and may not otherwise develop the disorder

Question 79

4: nature vs nurture Provide an example of the epigenetic approach

Answer 79

Lifestyle (smoking, diet, trauma) can causes genes to switch off/on, which could also be passed on to offspring

Question 80

4: nature vs nurture What does concordance mean?

Answer 80

Level of similarity between 2 people usually siblings, as measured by a correlation coefficient (between 1 and 0)

Question 81

4; nature vs nurture What aspect does nurture focus on? What philosophical tradition does this follow on from?

Answer 81

Nurture: influence of experience/environment • Empiricists (eg Locke): the mind is a blank slate at birth (tabula rasa), later shaped by experience. • Lerner identified different ‘levels’ of environment: from pre-natal experiences (eg mother’s physiological and psychological state during pregnancy) and post-natal experiences (socio-historical context the child grew up in)

Question 82

4: Nature vs nurture How are concordance and heritability linked?

Answer 82

The concordance gives an estimate about whether the trait is heritable: the proportion of differnce between individuals In a population due to a genetic variation: - IQ heritability is approx 0.5 approx (Plomin, 1994): half of a person’s IQ is determined by genetic factors, and half by environmental factors. - Concordance rates for monozygotic (identical) twins is higher (40%) than dizygotic (non-identical) twins (7%)

Question 83

4: Nature vs nurture Strengths of the interactionist approach

Answer 83

Diathesis-Stress Model: P: A strength of the interactionist approach is the Diathesis-Stress Model, which shows the interplay between nature and nurture in psychological disorders. E: Tienari (2004) studied 145 Finnish adoptees with a genetic risk for schizophrenia, comparing them with 158 without this risk. After 12 years, 14 adoptees developed schizophrenia, 11 from the high-risk group. Those with genetic predisposition raised in high-stress environments were more likely to develop the disorder, while those raised in supportive environments were less likely. E: This shows that genetic vulnerability alone doesn't determine schizophrenia development; environmental stressors trigger genetic risks. Children raised in nurturing environments had a lower risk of developing schizophrenia, emphasizing the protective effect of supportive surroundings. L: Thus, the Diathesis-Stress Model supports the interactionist approach, showing both genetic and environmental factors are crucial in understanding psychological disorders. Real-world Application to Mental Health: P: A strength of the interactionist approach is its real-world application, particularly in understanding and managing mental health disorders like OCD. E: Nedstat et al. (2010) found that the heritability rate of OCD is 0.76, indicating a significant genetic component. However, high heritability does not guarantee development of the disorder. E: This suggests that even with a genetic predisposition, OCD development can be influenced by environmental factors like stress management, guiding genetic counseling to mitigate risks. L: Therefore, the interactionist approach offers practical applications in mental health, emphasizing the need to understand the complex relationship between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

Question 84

4: Nature vs nurture Limitation of interactionist approach

Answer 84

P: A limitation of the nature-nurture debate is the difficulty in separating the influences of nature and nurture. E: Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus, associated with spatial memory, compared to control participants. This change was correlated with the time spent as a taxi driver, indicating the influence of environmental factors (nurture). However, this adaptation is also linked to the brain's innate capacity for neuroplasticity, a genetically determined trait (nature). E: This highlights the challenge in attributing the brain's changes to either nature or nurture, as both are involved in the process. The difficulty is also evident in twin studies, where higher concordance rates between identical twins may reflect both genetic similarities (nature) and shared environments (nurture). L: This complex interplay between nature and nurture undermines the validity of trying to attribute behavior solely to one factor, showing that behavior cannot be simply reduced to determinism or free will.

Question 85

5: Holism vs reductionism What are the 5 levels of explanation?

Answer 85

From least to most reductionist Social cultural Psychological/ cognitive Behavioural Physiological Neurochemical

Question 86

5: Holism vs reductionism What are the levels of explaination

Answer 86

Social and cultural level: most holistic level, involving social interactions, cultural norms, and societal influences. Psychological level: includes cognitive processes, emotions, and learned behaviors. For instance, cognitive explanations for depression might focus on negative thinking patterns, while behavioral explanations might consider how reinforcement history contributes to depressive symptoms. Biological level: most reductionist level of explanation and includes genetic, neurochemical, and physiological processes. reduces complex behaviors to their simplest biological components.

Question 87

5: Holism vs reductionism How do the explanations differ?

Answer 87

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable levels

Question 88

5: Holism vs reductionism What is a definition of holism?

Answer 88

The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts

Question 89

5: Holism vs reductionism What is a definition of reductionism?

Answer 89

The belief that human behavior is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts; use the principle of parsimony; explanations via the simplest, lowest level principles.

Question 90

5: Holism vs reductionism How does holism vs reductionism differ from other issues/debates?

Answer 90

There’s no continuum between holism and reductionism; as soon as you start to break down a holistic approach, it isn’t really holistic anymore

Question 91

5: Holism vs reductionism Describe 3 aspects of holism

Answer 91

Focuses on the individuals experience, which can’t be reduced eg: biological units Emphasises the idea that human behavior should be viewed as a whole, rather than as a sum of its parts Argues that to truly understand an individuals behavior, thoughts and emotions, one mist consider all aspects of their experience, including their environment, relationships and personal goals Compatible with the humanistic approach Uses qualitative measures to investigate the self, focusing on overarching themes, rather than individual component behaviors. Contrasts with reductionist approaches, which attempt to break down behavior into smaller component for analysis

Question 92

5: Holism vs reductionism Give an example of holism

Answer 92

Humanistic psychology argues humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimuli response link Human sims tries to understand influences behavior by looking at where they are on Maslows Heirarchy of needs and their realisation of self actualisation Rogers person-centred therapy is related to this approach, focussing on the importance of the patients subjective experience, with the therapist providing unconditional positive regard to help the patient understand their subjective feelings and experiences as a whole

Question 93

5: Holism vs reductionism Apply a levels of explanation to OCD

Answer 93

Social and cultural explainatioms: atypical behavior eg: repetitive hand washing Psychological: individual experiences of obsessive thoughts Physical: sequence of movements in hand washing Environmental: learned experiences through conditioning Physiological: abnormal functioning of fromtal lobes responsible for planning Neurochemical: under-production of serotonin so use SSRI’s as treatments

Question 94

5: Holism vs reductionism What is environmental reductionism, and what approach is it linked to?

Answer 94

All behaviour is acquired through stimulus response interactions (behaviourism) Eg: - Learning theory of attachemnt - Phobias (eg: little Albert) obtained and maintained using classical and operant conditions

Question 95

5: Holism vs reductionism What is biological reductionism and what approach is it linked to?

Answer 95

All behaviour is explained through neurochemical, physiological, evolutionary or genetic mechanisms Eg: - Antipsychotic drugs to treat dopamine deficits in schizophrenia - Doressiom can be explained as a result of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons and treated using SSRI’s

Question 96

5: Holism vs reductionism Strengths of reductionism

Answer 96

P: A strength of reductionism is its parsimony, allowing complex behaviors to be understood and studied systematically. E: Experimental psychology often reduces complex behaviors into isolated variables, such as breaking down cognitive processes like memory into components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. E: This approach helps researchers study specific factors in a controlled manner, establishing causal relationships that would be difficult to interpret if all influencing factors were studied at once. L: This increase in validity gives psychology credibility, placing it on equal terms with natural sciences and potentially leading to effective treatments for mental health disorders by focusing on singular causal factors. P: A strength of the reductionist approach is its practical application in the development of drug therapies for mental health. E: By isolating biological factors like neurotransmitter imbalances, researchers have developed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to alleviate symptoms of depression by targeting serotonin deficiency. E: While this has led to effective treatments, it oversimplifies complex disorders by neglecting broader psychological and social factors, limiting its explanatory power. L: The reductionist approach has improved understanding and treatment of mental health, but this comes at the cost of overlooking the broader context of a patient's life experience.

Question 97

5: Holism vs reductionism Limitatioms of reductionism

Answer 97

P: A limitation of reductionism is that biological reductionism may lead to errors in understanding, as it overlooks the complexity of human behavior, reducing validity. E: For instance, treating ADHD solely with drugs like Ritalin, based on the belief that it’s just a neurochemical imbalance, addresses only the symptoms and not the underlying causes of the condition. E: While Ritalin may reduce symptoms, the true causes of ADHD remain unaddressed, and the variable success rates of drug therapy suggest that a purely biological understanding is insufficient. L: A holistic approach, considering the broader context and underlying causes of disorders, may lead to more effective treatments that tackle both symptoms and root causes.

Question 98

5: Holism vs reductionism Strength of holism

Answer 98

P: A strength of holism is that it considers the wider context surrounding an individual, highlighting social behaviors that emerge only within group settings. E: For example, the Stanford Prison experiment demonstrated that conformity to social roles and deindividuation cannot be understood by examining individuals alone; it was the group interactions that played a key role. E: The interaction between participants in the prison setting revealed how individuals conformed to their social roles due to the power of the group context. L: This demonstrates that a holistic approach is crucial for understanding the complexities of behavior, with real-world applications in areas such as social psychology and group dynamics.

Question 99

5: Holism vs reductionism Limitation of holism

Answer 99

P: A limitation of the holistic approach is that it often adopts unscientific methods, leading to a lack of empirical evidence. E: For example, the humanistic approach doesn't rely on empirical methods to study cause-and-effect behavior; it avoids isolating variables, instead focusing on the whole person using qualitative methods like self-reports. E: While this allows for a deep understanding of the individual, it lacks the ability to establish clear causal relationships and make predictions, as reductionism does. L: Therefore, the holistic approach may reduce the credibility of psychology as a science, making it harder to understand human behavior due to its methodological limitations, though some argue that not all aspects of human psychology can be studied scientifically.

Question 100

6: idiographic vs nomothetic What is the origin of the word, ‘idiographic’

Answer 100

Greek word ‘idios’ which means ‘own’ or ‘private’

Question 101

6: idiographic vs nomothetic What does the idiographic approach focus on?

Answer 101

It focusses on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.

Question 102

6: idiographic vs nomothetic What is the origin of the word ‘Nomothetic’

Answer 102

Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’

Question 103

6: idiographic vs nomothetic What does the nomothetic approach focus on?

Answer 103

It’s concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people

Question 104

6: idiographic vs nomothetic List 6 characteristics of the idiographic approach

Answer 104

Aims: -Focuses on the detail about the individual - Generalisations could be made but this isn’t the focus ,which is on the individual -subjective and rich human experience is used as a way of explaining behavior ,without the aim of developing general principles and unifying laws Method: -low number of ppts in research, often case studies, not groups -qualititve research (eg: first hand personal accounts of patients) -use of in depth unstructured interviews

Question 105

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Give 2 examples of the idiographic approach

Answer 105

Most assossiated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches -Maslow/Rogers: -studied process of self-development, based on in depth therapeutic interviews -focus on the process of unconditioned positive regard -takes a holistic approach to research, focusing on the experience of the individual -Freud: -pyschodynamic approach: case studies and in-depth interviews -close observations of ‘Little Hans’ to explain phobias -later formed basis of Oedipus and Electra complexes (generalisation)

Question 106

6: idiographic vs nomothetic List 4 characteristics of the nomothetic approach

Answer 106

Aims: -to quantify human behavior to establish generalisations, to create general ‘laws’ of behavior that provide unifying people and control behaviour - Radford & Kirby suggested the aim is to 1) classify people into groups 2) establish principles of behavior that can be applied to people in general 3) establish dimensions along which people can be placed, compared, measured Method: -use of statistical techniques and quantitive research. Closely related to the specific approach: hypothesis, sample recruitment & testing; lab experiments, controlled observations, statistical significance testing -tools may include structured interviews or psychological tests

Question 107

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Give 2 examples of the nomothetic approach

Answer 107

Most associated with biological, cognitive and behaviourist approaches -Skinner (behaviourist): Behaviourists explain all behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links, which have been learned through experience Studied animals using laboratory experiments using string control of extraneous and confounding variables to allow a cause and effect relationship to be establish and ascertain general laws of learning -Tulving (cognitive/biological) makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving Helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex Sperry: Split-brain research, using repeated testing to inform brain lateralisation

Question 108

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Is the idiographic approach objective or subject

Answer 108

- Objectivity seen as not possible - Individual experience of personal context

Question 109

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Is the nomothetic approach objective or subjective

Answer 109

- Objectivity is central to the approach - Uses standardised tests - Aims to establish replication - Aims to exclude bias

Question 110

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Strength of nomothetic approach

Answer 110

P: A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it follows a scientific method, utilizing experimental (quantitative) techniques to allow for replication and examination of reliability. E: For example, cognitive psychologists model working memory, with its components reliably measured through operationalized categories, which increases internal validity. E: The efforts to reduce bias and objectively collect data enhance the scientific credibility of the findings. The creation of norms, such as an average IQ score of 100, provides a useful baseline for comparing intellectual abilities and mental disorders. L: This scientific approach has helped psychology establish itself as a valid scientific discipline and advanced the understanding of human behaviour.

Question 111

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Limitation of the nomothetic approach

Answer 111

P: A limitation of the nomothetic approach is that while it can predict group behavior, it cannot predict individual behavior due to its focus on quantitative data and statistical analysis. E: For example, Milgram's research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt shock, but it did not explain why each person obeyed, as different circumstances may have influenced each individual's behavior. E: Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram's findings apply only to groups and not individuals, providing a superficial understanding of human behavior. L: This limits the validity of the nomothetic approach, as group findings are not always applicable to individuals, and understanding individuals is key to making accurate predictions about behavior, as Allport (1937) argued.

Question 112

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Strength of the idiographic approach

Answer 112

P: A strength of the idiographic approach in using the case study method is its ability to evaluate psychological theories. E: For example, the case study of HM challenged the Multi-Store Model of Memory, showing that long-term memory comprises more than one type. HM could form new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories, which contradicted the model's claim of a single, unitary LTM store. E: This led to Tulving's development of the theory of three distinct types of LTM stores. L: The idiographic approach adds validity to psychological theories, as case studies can generate further research, contributing to the development of new theories and improving our understanding of human behavior.

Question 113

6: idiographic vs nomothetic Limitation of idiographic approach

Answer 113

P: A limitation of the idiographic approach is that it is less scientific than the nomothetic approach. E: For example, its emphasis on in-depth data collection and difficulty in making generalizations contradicts the goal of science to explain most variations in the fewest terms, enabling prediction and control. E: Research that does not address these goals can be seen as scientifically pointless, limiting the idiographic approach's ability to produce general laws or predictions about human behavior. L: As a result, the idiographic approach is less practical for diagnosing and treating psychological disorders, suggesting that combining both approaches may strengthen research findings.

Question 114

7: ethics Give examples of unethical studies?

Answer 114

Milrams shock experiment Stanford prisiomers experiment Watson’s Little Albert The Monster study: 20 orphans, one group told were given positive feedback on their stutter, other group received negitive feedback. Nat became withdrawn, anxious.

Question 115

7: ethics What are the ethical considerations in studies?

Answer 115

- The potential for consequences to individuals - Potential for wider groups eg: findings effect the target population - Consequences for social policy Eg: funding

Question 116

7: ethics What’s the link between pyschologicql research and socially sensitive research?

Answer 116

All psychological research has potential ethical considerations, but especially socially-sensitive research

Question 117

7: ethics What is socially-sensitive research

Answer 117

Defined by Sieber and Stanley. Studies with the potential consequences either directly for ppts in research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 118

7: ethics What are the British psychological society guidelines

Answer 118

respect -competence -responsibility -integrity

Question 119

7: ethics What ethical issues can arise if one breaches BPS guidelines

Answer 119

privacy -confidentiality -valid methodology -deception - Informed consent -Equitable treatment - Scientific freedom -Ownership of data -Values and the risk/benefit ratio.

Question 120

7: ethics Describe Sieber and Stanley’s key recommendations to address ethical issues assossiated with socially sensitive research

Answer 120

1) Awareness of potential consequences: researchers aware of this with their work for ppts, groups or populations, that the research concerns and should consider how the findings might be misused or misinterpreted in ways that can harm specific groups 2) Collaboration with targeted groups: researchers should work closely with group members who may be affected by this research to ensure research is respectful and sensitive to the needs of these groups 3) Careful framing of research questions: the way research questions are framed can influence interpretation and impact of research, they recommend researchers carefully consider how questions are posed to avoid reinforcing stereotypes or contribute to stigma 4) Ethical reflexivity: researchers could continually reflect on the ethical considerations of their work. So follow ethical guidelines ans think critically about the broader social impact of the research 5) Dissemination of findings: researchers should consider how they disseminate their findings, particularly in terms of how their findings might be used by others, they should strive to ensure that the dissemination doesn’t contribute to harm, misinterpretation or misuse of the research

Question 121

7: ethics Strengths of ethics

Question 122

7: ethics Limitations of ethics