Paper3: Aggression Flashcards

Question

3. Genetic factors of aggression How is this study different than other twin studies that have looked at the influence of genetics on aggression?

Answer 1

- A child is biologically related to their biological parents (genetic component) and shares an environment with adoptive parents (environmental component). - Higher concordance with adoptive parents suggests the trait is influenced by the environment. - Higher concordance with biological parents suggests a genetic component to the trait.

Answer 2

Rhee and Waldman's meta-analysis of adoption studies found genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression Hutchings and Mednick: Studied 14,000 adoptions in Denmark and found more criminal convictions in adopted boys whose biological fathers had criminal records. However, criminal convictions don't always indicate aggression, limiting internal validity.

Answer 3

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA gene) -controls production of MAO-A enzyme -this enzyme regulations the metabolism of monoamines – breaks these down

Answer 4

The MAOA-L (low activity allele) – called the warrior gene - results in low activity of the MAO-A enzyme This gene has been linked to high levels of aggression. Which contradicts previous research which shows low levels of serotonin is associated with high aggression not high levels of serotonin.

Answer 5

Monoamines – serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline

Answer 6

Low activity allele of a gene produces less or low activity of a protein eg: enzyme Less enzyme being synthesised means less neurotransmitter is broken down/metaboised so means there’s higher levels of neurotransmitter at the synapse.

Answer 7

MAOA gene is more common in populations with a history of warfare, with 2/3 of these populations carrying MAOA-L Lea and Chambers (2007) found that 56% of New Zealand Maori men carried the MAOA-L variant, compared to 34% of Caucasians. Maori people are known for their warrior culture.

Answer 8

Brunner et al (1993) found that 28 of the males in a dutch family behaved very aggressively (e.g. rape, attempted murder and assault), had low levels of MAO-A enzyme and the MAOA-L gene variant (Brunner Syndrome)

Answer 9

Found that of 97 men convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) those with the MAOA-L variant gene were the most violent perpetrators and resulted in the worst injuries on their partners.

Answer 10

The MAOA-L gene is linked to adult aggression only when combined with traumatic childhood experiences, supporting the diathesis-stress model. Caspi et al. (2002) studied 500 boys and found that those with MAOA-L were more likely to show antisocial behaviour if mistreated compared to those with MAOA-H or MAOA-L without mistreatment

Answer 11

A strength of the genetic explanation for aggression is the empirical support for its heritability. Eg: Rhee & Waldman (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies, finding that genetic factors account for 41% of aggression variance, suggesting a substantial hereditary influence. Ex: This implies that aggression is partly genetic, reflecting a diathesis-stress model. C: However, the 41% variance highlights the role of other factors, such as family dynamics and social experiences, which interact with genetic predispositions. L: This approach is valid as it considers both genetic and environmental influences, aligning with evidence that aggression results from their complex interplay.

Answer 12

P: difficulty measuring the effects of genetics alone and separating them from the environment. Eg: McDermott (2009) found that participants with MAOA-L behaved aggressively in a money-allocation experiment only when provoked; otherwise, they acted similarly to MAOA-H participants. Ex: This suggests aggression is better explained by an interactionist approach, where both genetic vulnerability (MAOA-L) and environmental factors (provocation) interact, complicating measurement. L: While the diathesis-stress model explains this interaction, it doesn't clarify the relative contribution of genetics and the environment, undermining the validity of a purely genetic explanation. P: there are likely to be multiple genes involved in aggression which makes it difficult to research. Eg: Stuart (2014) found that intimate partner violence in men was associated with both the MAOA-L gene and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT), with the combination of both being most linked to IPV. Ex: This indicates that isolating one gene is reductionist. Research is increasingly focusing on multiple genes; Vassos (2014) found no association between a single gene and aggression, while Tielbeek (2018) identified 40 genes linked to aggression in a study of 30,000 individuals. L: This challenges the idea that a single gene causes aggression, questioning the validity of a one-gene explanation. Moral-l less of it to break down serotonin so higher levels of seoritin but 5htt reuptake presynaptic neuron So low levels of serotonin as they’re assossiated with High levels of aggression

Answer 13

‘the fighting instinct in beasts and man that is directed against members of the same species’

Answer 14

- Aggression is an instinct. It occurs in all members of a species without the need for learning. It is innate and mostly genetically determined. - We can study non-human animals and extrapolate to humans because we are all subject to the same laws of natural selection.

Answer 15

refers to behavior that enables a person to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. - Help survival - Protect resources (land/food) - Establish dominance hierarchies - Access to females

Answer 16

Ethological explanations suggest that the main function of aggression is adaptive. Adaptive Function 1: After an aggressive encounter, the loser is not killed but forced to move, reducing competition for resources by spreading individuals across an area. Adaptive Function 2: Aggression helps form a dominance hierarchy, which offers benefits like mating rights and reduces future aggression once established.

Answer 17

Many species establish dominance hierarchies through aggressive, often ritualized interactions, suggesting this behavior is adaptive. Doves, as non-hunters, lack this inhibition but can simply fly away to avoid conflict. Lorenz believes humans, like doves, are naturally inclined to avoid aggression but, with the ability to develop weapons of mass destruction, lack instinctive inhibitions.

Answer 18

Pettit et al (1988) studied play groups of young children and observed that aggressive interactions were an important aspect of how some children gain dominance over others.

Answer 19

A series of behaviours carried out in a set order.

Answer 20

Most aggressive interactions consist of ritualistic signalling (snarling, displaying claws, pushing contests) and rarely becomes physical.

Answer 21

Lorenz (1966) observed that in fights between animals, actual injury is rare. Because the adaptive value is to warn off the lower ranking animal by being aggressive beforehand

Answer 22

Appeasement displays are behaviours or signals that aim to pacify a potential aggressor, reduce tension, or avoid conflict. They often occur during confrontations or in hierarchical situations, especially when one individual is trying to show submission and acceptance of defeat and stop any further aggression to prevent actual injury. Adaptive because if aggressive encounters ended with injury or death it could threaten the existence of the species.

Answer 23

Lorenz suggested that the wolf showing its jugular vein is an appeasement signal. Schenkel's argues against this view and suggests that this 'submissive’ pose is actually a challenge that leads to further fighting.

Answer 24

A biological structure or process which is activated by an external stimulus, in turn triggers a fixed action pattern.

Answer 25

These are a sequence of stereotyped pre- programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism. Stimulus -> IRM -> FAP

Answer 26

- Stereotyped (unchanging sequence) - Universal within the species - Unaffected by learning - 'Ballistic' (once started they must continue) - Single Purpose - only occurring in one type of situation - A response to an identifiable and specific stimulus - called a releaser if intra-specific

Answer 27

Male stickleback fish are territorial during mating season, and a red underbelly triggers an attack response (FAP) when another male enters their territory. Tinbergen found that sticklebacks would attack models with a red spot, regardless of shape, and the FAP ran to completion without further stimuli.

Answer 28

Use them as strengths Eg: A strength of the ethnological explaination of aggression is that there’s supportive evidence from genetics/evolutionary approach to explaination aggression

Answer 29

P: A limitation of ritualistic aggression is that in certain species it appears the aggression is more than just ritualistic. Eg: Jane Goodall (2010) investigated chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream National park in Tanzania. In the 'four year war' male chimps in one community set about systematically slaughtering all the members of another group. Sometimes pinning down their victim. Ex: Goodall observed aggressive attacks between rivals that continued despite victims offering signals of appeasement. L: This does not fit with Lorenz's assertions and therefore challenges his suggestion about the role of appeasement signals and ritualistic aggression. P: A limitation of the ethological explanation is that it ignores the role of culture. There is evidence that aggressive behaviour is more common in some cultures than others Eg: Nisbett (1993) found a north-south divide for homicide in USA with southern states having higher homicide rates. This was only true of reactive aggression triggered by arguments. Ex: Nisbett explained this as a culture of honour which is a learnt social norm. L: This provides evidence that cannot be explained by the ethological approach and shows how potentially culture can override innate influences

Answer 30

Evolutionary explanation examines how adaptive behaviours of our ancestors are passed down from generations through genetic transmission Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness (EEA) suggests behaviours witnessed today would have evolved due to the environment 10,000 to 5 million years ago

Answer 31

Aggression served an adaptive value: - Secure resources - Food - Territory - Females - Establish hierarchical dominance social status

Answer 32

Aggression has been selected for by females

Answer 33

Cuckoldry (being a husband of a cheating wife) creates a threat of paternity uncertainty It is a waste of resources to raise children who are not a male's own as it contributes to the survival of a competitor's genes

Answer 34

-In our evolutionary past, men who avoided cuckoldry were more reproductively successful. -anti-cuckoldry behaviors have evolved to drive aggressive strategies to retain partners and prevent infidelity. -These behaviors were adaptive, as males couldn't be certain of paternity, and sexual jealousy evolved to avoid cuckoldry.

Answer 35

Wilson and Daly identified mate retention strategies which involve aggression and physical violence Direct guarding: male vigilance over a partners behaviour eg: Tracking them Negative inducement: issuing threats of dire consequences eg: threatening to kill themselves if their partner leaves

Answer 36

Wilson et al (1995) -Found that women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence from their partners -Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives

Answer 37

-Bullying involves a power imbalance, with a more powerful individual using aggression against a weaker person. -Traditionally, bullying has been seen as a maladaptive behavior linked to poor social skills. -However, the evolutionary explanation suggests that ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to enhance survival and create reproductive opportunities.

Answer 38

Characteristics associated with bullying (eg: dominance, resource acquisition, and strength) are attractive to females as they suggest an ability to ward off rivals (Volk, 2012). These traits increase access to females while minimizing competition from other males, making them evolutionarily advantageous since males can reproduce more.

Answer 39

Campbell suggest female bullying more often takes place within a relationship to help secure the males fidelity The partner continues to provide resources for future offspring and the behaviour is naturally selected because it increases the women's reproductive success

Answer 40

P: has the ability to explain gender differences in terms of adaptive functions. Eg: Campbell (1999) argues that physical aggression is maladaptive for females with offspring, as it risks their survival and that of their young so females may use verbal aggression to retain resource-providing partners. Ex: Puts (2010) suggests that male traits like greater muscle mass and more robust jaw bones, indicate ancestral competition among males. L: This implies that evolutionary arguments can shed light on the biological basis of gender differences in aggression, supporting the validity and generalizability of this explanation across cultures.

Answer 41

P: There are cultural variations in aggression. Eg: Thomas (1958) found that the !Kung San people of the Kalahari discourage aggression from childhood, as it results in a loss of status. In contrast, the Yanomamo people of Venezuela and Brazil are known as the "fierce people." Ex: If aggression were evolutionarily determined, it should be universal across cultures, as it enhances survival and reproductive success. L: This challenges the validity of the explanation. However, Lee (1979) questions whether the !Kung San are truly peaceful, citing a high homicide rate. Observer bias may also influence findings, reducing validity. P: A limitation of the evolutionary explanation of aggression is its determinism, ignoring social factors. Eg: The theory suggests aggression is biologically determined by adaptations beyond an individual’s control. Ex: This emphasizes nature over nurture and overlooks cognitive aspects of aggression, such as inhibitory control or the influence of social role models. L: This has ethical implications, suggesting aggression is innate and uncontrollable, which undermines personal responsibility. A soft deterministic approach could acknowledge aggression as biologically predisposed but also influenced by environmental factors.

Answer 42

Frustrations occurs if our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by an external factor. This creates an AGGRESSIVE DRIVE which leads to aggressive behaviours such as: - Violent fantasies - Verbal outbursts - Physical violence

Answer 43

Dollard et al. (1939) formulated the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (FAH), which states that: -Frustration always leads to aggression. -Aggression is always a result of frustration. - based on Freud’s concept of catharsis, where aggression is seen as an innate drive. - According to Freud, the only way to reduce aggression is actively releasing it. - Frustration occurs when our attempts to achieve a goal are blocked by an external factor, leading to an aggressive drive. -This drive results in aggressive behavior, which is cathartic, as it satisfies the frustration and reduces further aggression, leaving us feeling better for "getting it off our chest."

Answer 44

Aggression isn’t always expressed directly against the source of frustration because : 1) Cause of frustration may be abstract 2) Cause may be too powerful and we may risk punishment by aggression against it 3) Cause may be unavailable at the time

Answer 45

Psychodynamic theory suggests we use ego defense mechanisms to protect ourselves, including two that help in the catharsis of aggression: Sublimation: Redirecting aggression into socially acceptable activities like sports. Displacement: Directing aggression onto a less threatening target, such as shouting at a sibling or screaming into a pillow when unable to express it directly to the source

Answer 46

proposed a revised frustration-aggression hypothesis: - Frustration doesn't always lead to aggression - Aggression would only occur in the presence of certain cues, such as the presence of weapons will be more likely to trigger aggression.

Answer 47

P: A strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis is the supportive evidence for displacement from a meta-analysis of displaced aggression. Eg: Marcus-Newhall (2000) examined studies where aggression was directed at a different target than the source of frustration. They found participants were more likely to aggress toward an innocent party when the source was unavailable for retaliation. Ex: This demonstrates that frustration can lead to displaced aggression. L: As a meta-analysis, this strengthens the validity of Dollard's theory by showing its reliability across multiple studies.

Answer 48

P: A limitation of the displacement of aggression as cathartic is evidence showing it may not be effective. Ex: **Bushman** found that participants who vented their anger by hitting a punchbag became more angry and aggressive, with doing nothing proving more effective. Bushman compares venting to using petrol to extinguish a fire, suggesting that it can actually increase aggression. Ex: This research challenges the catharsis theory, suggesting that venting may encourage rumination, intensifying emotional responses rather than diffusing them. L: This weakens the validity of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, as it undermines the assumption that venting reduces aggression, questioning its generalizability. P: A limitation of the link between frustration and aggression is that it may only apply in certain circumstances and is tied to negative affect more generally. Eg: **Berkowitz** reformulated the frustration-aggression hypothesis into "negative affect theory," proposing that frustration is just one of many aversive stimuli (e.g., loneliness, jealousy, pain) that create negative feelings, which may lead to various responses, including but not limited to aggression. Ex: This suggests that frustration doesn't always lead to aggression, and aggression can occur without frustration. L: Berkowitz's theory broadens the explanation of aggression, undermining the validity of Dollard’s frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Answer 49

Direct Learning (Conditioning): Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly through operant conditioning. A child who snatches a toy learns that aggression brings rewards if the behavior is positively reinforced. Indirect Learning (Social Learning Theory): Bandura also proposed observational learning as an indirect mechanism. Children acquire aggressive behaviors by observing role models performing aggressive behaviour If the model's aggression is rewarded, the child may imitate (vicarious reinforcement). If the model is punished, the child sees vicarious punishment and may avoid aggression. Models can be live (parents, teachers, peers) or symbolic (media).

Answer 50

1) Aggression is learned through observation and imitation of role models. 2) Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors of role models they identify with (e.g., based on gender, status, attractiveness, or similarity). 3) Aggression is influenced by the consequences observed, through vicarious reinforcement. 4) Aggressive acts performed by a role model are internalized and reproduced in the future. 5) The individual internalizes the model's aggression, seeing rewards as a result of the behavior, making it acceptable and likely to be repeated.

Answer 51

Attention: The child must focus on the aggressor and the aggressive act. Retention: The behavior must be stored in long-term memory for future recall. Reproduction: The child must have the ability to physically reproduce the behavior. Motivation: The child is motivated to imitate if they observe rewards or benefits. (Vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 52

the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve desired goals - child's confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards - Consider a child who hits other children to get their toys, they learn that they have the motor skill to force a child to hand over a toy - Their sense of self-efficacy develops with each successful outcome

Answer 53

Aim: Investigate if aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles. Method: 72 children (36 male, 36 female), aged 3-6, were assigned to one of three groups for 10 minutes: Aggressive model: Child observed an adult hitting and shouting at a Bobo doll. Non-aggressive model: Child observed an adult playing quietly with a construction set. Control group: Child did not observe a model. Children were then frustrated by being denied toys and placed alone in a room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys and a Bobo doll for 20 minutes. Results: Children who saw the aggressive model exhibited more aggressive acts. Boys imitated same-sex models more, while girls showed more physical aggression with male models and more verbal aggression with female models. Conclusion: Aggressive behavior can be learned through observation and imitation of a model.

Answer 54

P: A strength of SLT is that it is supported by research showing aggression can be socially reinforced through peer groups. Eg: Poulin and Boivin (2000) studied aggressive boys (9-12 years old) and found they formed cliques where aggression was reinforced and rewarded, leading to stable antisocial behavior. Ex: This supports SLT’s claim that aggression is learned and maintained through observation, reinforcement, and social approval. C: However, the study's focus on young boys limits generalisability to females or adults. L: Despite this, it provides strong evidence for SLT by demonstrating how aggression is reinforced through observation and social dynamics. P: A strength of SLT is its ability to account for cultural variations in aggression. Eg: Christianson (2006) found that the IKung San people of the Kalahari Desert discourage aggression, leading to lower levels of aggressive behavior in children. Ex: The lack of reinforcement and role models for aggression reduces the likelihood of imitation, supporting the cultural context dependence of aggression. L: This strengthens SLT’s validity by showing how aggression varies according to cultural norms and reinforcement patterns.

Answer 55

P: A limitation of SLT in explaining aggression is its limited focus on biological influences. Eg: While Bandura acknowledged a predisposition toward aggression, SLT emphasizes environmental factors like observation and reinforcement. Ex: However, research supports the role of biological factors in aggression, such as genetic influences (e.g., MAOA gene), hormones (e.g., testosterone), and brain regions like the amygdala. L: This suggests SLT may be insufficient as a standalone explanation, as it overlooks how biological and environmental factors interact. Therefore, SLT's validity is limited in explaining aggression that is influenced by both learned and biological factors.

Answer 56

A psychological state in which an individual has lowered levels of self evaluation and decreased concerns about evaluation by others, particularly when they are in a group. This may free the individual from the constraints of social norms.

Answer 57

Crowd theory was first investigated by Gustave Le Bon to explain the behaviour of individuals in groups but Zimbardo (1969) proposed the theory of de-individuation.

Answer 58

In Western society, strong norms against aggression shape our identities. Normally, self-awareness and social norms prevent aggressive behavior. However, in a crowd, anonymity reduces self-assessment and individual identity, weakening inhibitions and allowing aggression, as the consequences and norms are overlooked.

Answer 59

o Zimbardo felt the role of anonymity was crucial o In an individuated state our behaviour is rational and normative. o In a deindividuated state our behaviours are emotional, impulsive, irrational, disinhibited and anti-normative and we lose our self-awareness, we stop monitoring and regulating our own behaviour and simply 'live for the moment' without thinking about the future.

Answer 60

o Darkness o Uniforms o Disguise o Drugs/ alcohol o Crowds (the bigger the better) o Major factor is a feeling of anonymity o When anonymous we have less fear of retribution we are part of the faceless crowd) o Anonymity provides fewer opportunities for others to judges negatively

Answer 61

Deindividuation increases aggression due to the consequences of anonymity, which reduce two types of self-awareness: Private Self-Awareness: Focus shifts away from our feelings and behavior in a crowd, reducing self-criticism and encouraging deindividuation. Public Self-Awareness: Concern for how others view us diminishes in a crowd, making us feel anonymous and less accountable for aggressive behavior.

Answer 62

Questioned male undergraduates at a US university by asking them directly about their personal likelihood of committing such an act under conditions of guaranteed anonymity and immunity from punishment • 35% said they would commit rape if there was no chance of being identified.

Answer 63

P: A strength of the de-individuation explanation is evidence showing that anonymity encourages aggression, especially online. Eg: Douglas & McCarthy (2001) found users engaging in trolling often concealed their identities. Ex: This supports de-individuation theory, which suggests anonymity reduces self-awareness and accountability, promoting aggression. Co: However, online aggression may not reflect real-world behavior, where social cues may inhibit aggression. L: Despite this, the study's ecological validity supports the link between anonymity and aggression. P: A strength of the de-individuation hypothesis is real-world evidence identifying conditions that increase de-individuation. Eg: Mann found baiting incidents were more likely in large, distant crowds, and darkness, aligning with de-individuation theory. Ex: These conditions (darkness, anonymity, crowd size) lower self-awareness and foster aggression, as predicted by de-individuation theory. Co: However, the study lacks control over extraneous variables, which may limit validity. L: If reproducible, the study's ecological validity strengthens the theory’s real-world applicability.

Answer 64

A limitation of de-individuation theory is the evidence showing gender differences in responses to de-individuated conditions. Eg: Cannavale et al. (1970) placed both males and females in deindividuated settings and found increased aggression only in males, a finding later supported by Diener (1973). Ex: This reveals a beta bias in the theory, assuming men and women respond similarly to de-individuation, despite evidence suggesting differences. For instance, Johnson & Downing (1979) showed that females also displayed aggression under disguise, but gender differences in the context and expression of aggression need further exploration. L: These gender-based differences suggest the theory lacks population validity, limiting its generalisability. Caution is needed when applying it to real-world contexts like crowd control or online group behaviour.

Answer 65

Aggressive or violent behaviour which occurs within a formal organised setting (e.g. prisons). Psychologists have researched institutions to better understand how they cultivate aggression and violence.

Answer 66

Dispositional: explanation of behaviour highlighting the role of an individual's personality Emphasis = Individual personality & differences Suggests that high level of aggression in prisons is due to the personal characteristics of the prisoners in the prison Situational: explanations that find the cause of the aggression as existing within the environment (this may include other people). Emphasis = Social context & environment Suggests that high level of aggression in prisons is due to the environment of the prison

Answer 67

- Theory suggests Aggression in prison is imported from the outside due to prisoners' personalities and past experiences. - Violent offenders bring traits like anger, impulsivity, and a history of using violence to solve problems. - Gang affiliations and street culture often persist within the prison environment. - Other factors include withdrawal from substance addiction, low education levels, high testosterone in young males, and genetic predispositions (e.g., MAOA-L gene).

Answer 68

1) Wang & Diamond: Anger, antisocial personality style and impulsivity found these personality traits were stronger predictors of institutional aggression than ethnicity and type of offence committed 2) DeLisi et al.: Low self control, particularly to lose temper easily, was a predictor of aggressive behaviour before and during incarceration

Answer 69

- argues that causes of institutional aggression lie within the prison environment itself - Prisoners are deprived of freedom, independence, goods, safety, and heterosexual intimacy, so inmates become aggressive to get them - prison regime can be frustrating and 'lock ups' can cause frustration Harsh conditions => stress => aggressive behavior as coping mechanism

Answer 70

- Deprivation of liberty: Loss of freedom; prisoners need permission for basic activities like eating or sleeping. -Deprivation of autonomy: Lack of power and choice creates helplessness, leading to frustration and aggression. -Deprivation of goods: Restricted access to everyday items like smartphones fosters frustration and aggression. - Deprivation of relationships: Loss of heterosexual relationships may cause emasculation and anxiety, heightening aggression. -Deprivation of security: Fear of aggression from other inmates increases a sense of threat, prompting defensive aggression.

Answer 71

Steiner's Study: -Investigated 519 US prisons to identify factors predicting inmate aggression. -Findings: Inmate-on-inmate violence was higher in prisons with more female staff, overcrowding, and inmates in protective custody. Wilson's Study: -At HMP Woodhill (for violent prisoners), two conditions were tested: 1) Improved environment: Reduced noise (radio), better views, less claustrophobia/heat. 2)Standard environment: Hot, noisy, and overcrowded. -Findings: Violent assaults on staff and inmates dropped to nearly zero in the improved condition.

Answer 72

P: A strength of the situational explanation is that it highlights how proximity can exacerbate violence. Eg: Cunningham analyzed 35 homicides in Texas prisons and found motivations aligning with Clemmer’s deprivation model. Many involved cell-sharing inmates, where conflicts over boundaries (e.g., drugs, sexual activity, personal possessions) escalated aggression. Ex: These findings emphasize the impact of environmental stressors and close quarters, supporting the deprivation model by showing how resource scarcity and personal space invasion heighten hostility. C: However, focusing on extreme cases like homicides may limit generalizability, as not all inmates respond to deprivation with violence. L: While the study supports the deprivation model, its explanatory power may be context-specific.

Answer 73

P: A limitation of the deprivation model is its inconsistent evidence regarding the link between deprivation and aggression. Ex: McCorkle et al. found overcrowding, lack of privacy, and absence of meaningful activities significantly increased peer violence, supporting the situational perspective. Eg: However, Hensley et al. (2002) found no reduction in aggression in prisons allowing conjugal visits, challenging the idea that deprivation of intimacy directly causes violence. L: These mixed findings suggest that while situational factors may contribute to aggression, their effects are not universally predictable, limiting the model's reliability.

Answer 74

P: research showing that prison security level does not predict aggressive behavior. Eg: Camp & Gaes studied 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and aggression predispositions, randomly assigning 50% to low-security prisons and 50% to higher-security prisons. Ex: Aggressive misconduct was around 35% in both groups, suggesting inmate characteristics were the key predictor of aggression, not the prison environment. C: While the field experiment lacked full control over variables like specific environments and staff interactions, which could influence results, L: It provides strong support for the dispositional explanation due to its high ecological validity and random allocation, enhancing internal validity.

Answer 75

P: The deprivation model neglects the role of prison officials and administrative practices in influencing aggression. Eg: Dilulio (1991) proposed the Administrative Control Model (ACM), suggesting poor management—such as weak leadership, inconsistent rules, disengaged staff, and limited education—creates conditions that foster violence. Ex: Dilulio argued that these situational factors outweigh inmate characteristics, challenging the dispositional model by showing aggression may result more from the environment than individual traits. L: This highlights the need for effective prison management reforms, as focusing solely on inmate traits could lead to ineffective or harmful interventions for reducing aggression.

Answer 76

A strength of combining dispositional and situational factors is that it provides a more comprehensive explanation of aggression in prisons Eg: Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando proposed a dual model: the importation model explains inmate-on-inmate violence while the deprivation model better explains violence directed at prison staff Ex: Dons and Waid suggested an interactional model, arguing that deprivation alone does not cause aggression rather it must combine with inmates imported characteristics to trigger violence L: this approach suggests both dispositional and situational factors contribute to aggression in prisons. Ignoring this interaction may limit the model's practical applicability, as interventions based on a single-factor approach might fail to address the complex drivers of aggression in such environments.

Answer 77

Concept: Hours of TV viewing, irrespective of whether the content is violent, may lead to aggressive behaviour Evidence: studied 1037 people born in New Zealand and measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to age 26. Findings: time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood convictions and violent crimes. Those who watched the most TV were more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. the amount of TV watched not the violence on the TV that was important. Interpretation: Indirect effect of reduced social interaction and poorer educational achievement

Answer 78

Concept: Violent media may significantly influence aggression due to its explicit portrayal of violence. Evidence: A replication of Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment compared children who watched a model beat the doll in person versus on film. Findings: Both groups exhibited high levels of imitative aggression, with the real-life model group showing the most, followed closely by the film-watching group. Interpretation: This demonstrates that vicarious reinforcement operates through media, as children imitate aggression by observing the consequences of others' actions.

Answer 79

Concept: Potentially the most significant media influence on aggression, as the content itself is explicitly violent Evidence: Carried out a meta-analysis of approximately 200 studies Findings: Found a positive correlation between viewing TV/film violence and anti-social behaviour Interpretation: However, the findings accounted for only 1-10% of variance in children's aggressive behaviour - a minor effect compared with other sources

Answer 80

Concept: Violent video games may increase aggression more than traditional media due to active participation and reinforcement through operant conditioning. Evidence: Students who played a violent game (Mortal Kombat) chose higher noise levels (5.97/10) to punish an opponent in a task, compared to those who played a nonviolent game (Golf) (4.6/10). Additional Evidence (Anderson et al., 2010): A meta-analysis of 136 studies found exposure to violent video games linked to increased aggression across cultures, with stronger effects in higher-quality studies and no publication bias. Interpretation: Violent gaming has a significant impact on aggression, potentially more so than second-hand smoke on cancer.

Answer 81

Concept: May have more powerful effects than traditional media, because (i) the player takes a more active role, and (i) game playing is more actively rewarding (operant conditioning) Evidence: DeLisi et al. (2013) Studied 277 juvenile offenders which serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher/parent/gang fighting. Findings: offender's aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them. Interpretation: They argued that aggression should be a public health issue like HIV/AIDS and computer game violence a significant risk factor

Answer 82

+: Manipulating the independent variable (IV) allows us to establish causality, suggesting that playing aggressive games may cause an increase in aggressive behavior. Realistic aggression measures would be unethical. -: Lab measures of aggression (e.g., delivering loud noise) lack mundane realism. In real life, aggression carries risks like retribution, whereas in labs, the environment is "safe," reducing ecological validity.

Answer 83

-: Potentially spurious results due to directionality (does A cause B, or B cause A?) and the possibility of a third variable. Explanation: Socialization Hypothesis: Aggressive media causes increased aggression. Selection Hypothesis: People who are already aggressive are more likely to choose aggressive media. Without further data, it's impossible to determine which hypothesis is true.

Answer 84

+: -Temporal Causation: Can explore whether media aggression precedes violent behavior, strengthening causality claims. -Developmental Insights: Track behavior changes across life stages (childhood to adulthood) and identify critical periods. -Cumulative Effects: Assess if prolonged exposure to media aggression leads to more significant behavioral outcomes. -: -Manifestation of Aggression: Aggression may manifest differently over time (physical, verbal, relational). -Media Consumption Habits: Changing media habits complicate linking violent media to aggression (e.g., violent cartoons in childhood, physical violence in films later). -Retention Bias: Aggressive participants may be more likely to drop out, skewing results.

Answer 85

+: -Detection of Subtle Effects: Combines data from many small samples to identify consistent effects or lack of effect. -Increased Generalisability: Broader range of populations, settings, and variations enhances robustness. -Utilises Existing Data: Leverages already published studies, saving time and resources. -: -Quality of Included Studies: Dependent on the quality of studies included (e.g., definition of aggression). -Publication Bias: Only detects published effects, and positive effects are more likely to be published (file-drawer problem).

Answer 86

DeWall and Anderson's (2011) General Aggression Model suggests that: o Desensitisation o Disinhibition o cognitive priming all act together - along with other influences - to explain the long-term effects of habitual use of violent media (e.g. gaming)

Answer 87

Normal response to violence is sympathetic arousal. So, the usually aversive stimulus has reduced impact which means that on repeated exposure the degree of anxiety and arousal is reduced.

Answer 88

adaptive for our ancestors, helping them focus on immediate threats by reducing emotional reactions to frequent stimuli. Psychologists suggest this process helps individuals cope with repeated exposure to modern stimuli.

Answer 89

Repeated exposure to violence in media, such as TV shows or video games, can lead to desensitisation, where individuals become less responsive to aggression over time. This reduced emotional and physiological response, such as a lack of fear or arousal in the presence of aggression, may cause individuals to become more accepting of violence. As a result, they may be more likely to respond with aggression when presented with similar situations.

Answer 90

Carnagey (2007) Procedure: - Participants played a violent or non-violent game for 20 minutes, then watched a10-minute film containing scenes of real-life violence Findings: - After watching the violent game, participants had lower heart rate and skin conductance response while viewing filmed real-life violence

Answer 91

Procedure: Participants watched the film Straw Dogs, which includes a graphic and prolonged rape scene, followed by a re-enactment of a rape trial. Findings: Male viewers showed increased acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression, compared to a control group. They were less sympathetic towards the rape victim and less likely to find the defendant guilty. No effects were observed in female participants.

Answer 92

Most people are restrained from aggression due to societal norms that view it as harmful. We learn through conditioning (CC/OC) and social learning (SLT) that aggression is antisocial. However, exposure to violent media loosens these restraints, as violence is portrayed as normal and acceptable. In video games, violence is often rewarded, and victim consequences are minimized, creating new social norms that influence viewers or players.

Answer 93

Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus

Answer 94

The idea is that watching aggressive media, such as video games, provides us with a "script" for how to act in violent situations. Huesmann suggests these scripts are stored in implicit memory, priming us for aggression. When we encounter cues in an aggressive situation, this script is triggered, influencing our behavior.

Answer 95

Fischer & Greitemeyer (2006): Procedure: Used as their aggressive stimulus song lyrics. Male P's listened to misogynistic or neutral lyrics and female P's did equivalent. Findings: males in the misogynistic condition recalled more negative qualities in women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate - adding more hot pepper sauce (further research support for females repeating the same results towards men). Male subjects only listened to two different songs with misogynous lyrics and showed a considerable increase in aggression toward women.

Answer 96

P: research evidence demonstrates how reduced arousal is linked to increased aggression Eg: Krahe et al. found that habitual viewers of violent media had lower physiological arousal (skin conductance) when viewing violence and delivered louder unprovoked white noise bursts to a confederate. Ex: This supports desensitisation theory, suggesting repeated exposure to violent media reduces sensitivity and increases aggressive tendencies. C: However, the lab setting of Krahne’s study may not reflect real-world aggression, where social norms and accountability play a role. L: Despite limited ecological validity, the study increases the validity of the desensitisation theory by showing how reduced arousal lowers emotional barriers to aggression.

Answer 97

P: alternative explanations, such as the catharsis hypothesis, may sometimes provide a better explanation Eg: Kestenbaum (1985) found that engaging in aggressive activities, like competitive sports or violent video games, often reduced aggression, supporting the catharsis hypothesis that safe outlets can release frustration. Ex: This challenges the idea that violent stimuli always prime aggression, suggesting they may instead have a therapeutic function, reducing real-world aggression. L: The findings underscore the value of considering multiple perspectives in aggression research, with applications in game design and therapeutic strategies to mitigate aggression.

Answer 98

P: research evidence demonstrates how presenting violence as justified can increase aggressive behavior. Eg: Berkowitz & Alioto (1973) found that participants who watched a film portraying violence as justified gave more fake electric shocks to a confederate. Ex: This suggests that justified media violence disinhibits aggression by making it seem socially acceptable, lowering internal restraints. L: This supports the disinhibition model, showing how perceived social acceptability can remove constraints on aggression, increasing violent responses.

Answer 99

P: research findings indicate that the activation of scripts has practical therapeutic application. Eg: Bushman and Anderson (2002) found that exposure to violent media activated aggressive cognitive scripts, leading to faster recognition of aggressive words and increased aggression in decision-making tasks. Ex: These findings support cognitive-behavioral therapies that modify maladaptive scripts and promote prosocial behaviors through techniques like role-playing. C: Generalisability is limited by individual and cultural differences; for instance, collectivist cultures may exhibit weaker script activation than individualistic ones. L: The research provides a framework for therapeutic interventions but highlights the need for strategies tailored to individual contexts.

Answer 100

P: the potential confounding role of complexity Eg: Zendle et al. (2018) found that complex violent video games increased aggression, suggesting cognitive demands, not violent content, drive these effects. Ex: This challenges earlier findings, highlighting how factors like cognitive load or frustration may confound studies attributing aggression to violent priming. L: The study underscores the need for rigorous methodology in aggression research, controlling for variables like game complexity to clarify the validity of violent priming theories.