force that acts to minimize the surface area of an interface between two fluids
surface tension
substance which reduces the difference in energy possessed by a fluid molecule surrounded by other molecules of the same fluid compared to one at the interface which has to interact with molecules of the other fluid
surfactant
soap molecules are blank because they have one end that interacts well with water and another that doesn’t
amphipathic
amount of pressure inside the bubble (P) can be related to surface tension (T) and the radius of the bubble (r) by this equation
Laplace equation… P=2T/r
Fick’s equation
J = -DA(dC/dx)
J
net flux of a solute
A
cross sectional area through which diffusion occurs
dC/dx
concentration difference between two points separated by distance x
D
diffusion coefficient for the diffusing molecule
automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus
reflex
component parts of a reflex arc
stimulus, sensory receptor, afferent pathway, integrating center, efferent pathway, effector
localized effect in reaction to a stimulus
paracrine effect
three functions of reflexes
protective, homeostasis, clinical
conscious response to a stimulus
reaction
example of paracrine response
inflammation
stretch reflex of patellar tendon
tendon jerk
plantar reflex also used in babies and is called blank
Babinski
pupillary light reflex is also called
accomodation
balance test that tests several equilibrium reflexes
Romberg test
spinning reflex
nystagmus
when the other eye responds like the other eye even though it isn’t exposed to stimulus
consensual reflex
reflex when the back of the neck is pinched
ciliospinal
golgi tendon organ function
sense muscle tension
muscle spindle receptors function
sense muscle length
if a reflex is above the neck then the integrating center is the blank
brain
three efferent pathways
general somatic, general visceral, special visceral
four afferent pathways
general somatic, general visceral, special visceral, special somatic
efferent pathway that carry motor impulses out of brain or spinal cord to skeletal muscles and cause them to contract
general somatic
efferent pathway that carry motor impulses out of brain or spinal cord to smooth muscles and glands associated with internal organs
general visceral
efferent pathway that carry motor impulses out from brain to muscles used for chewing, swallowing, speaking, and facial expression
special visceral
afferent pathway that carry sensory impulses to brain or spinal cord from receptors in skin and skeletal muscles
general somatic
afferent pathway that carry sensory impulses to brain or spinal cord from blood vessels and internal organs
general visceral
afferent pathway that carry sensory impulses to brain from olfactory and taste receptors
special visceral
afferent pathway that carry sensory impulses to brain from receptors for sight, hearing and equilibrium
special somatic
four things that we have receptors for
touch, pain, hot, cold
four types of receptors
tactile, thermal, nociceptors, proprioceptors,
receptor for mechanical pressure
tactile
receptor for warm and cold
thermal
receptor for pain
nociceptor
receptor for position and movement
proprioceptors
two pathways for transmission of sensory signals
anterolateral, dorsal
pain and crude touch sensory pathway
anterolateral
touch and pressure sensory pathway
dorsal
dorsal pathway runs up blank lateral then crosses over in blank
dorsal, medulla
sensory cortex that has discrete areas that receive somatic, visual, auditory, and gustatory sensations
neocortex
neocortex also has areas for control of blank
movement
neocortex receptors are not blank
evenly distributed
two types of special senses
photoreceptors, auditory receptors
in the eye, light waves change blank via blank
membrane potential, photoreceptors
photoreceptor at night and low in detail
rods
photoreceptor during day and high in detail and color
cones
area of best vision
fovea
distant objects… the lens ciliary muscles blank, lense becomes blank, and suspensor ligament gets blank
relax, thinner, tight
close objects… the lens ciliary muscles blank, lens becomes blank, and suspensor ligament gets blank
contract, fatter, loose
adjustment of focus to compensate for distance
accomodation
minimum distance you can focus and gets greater with age
near point discrimination
lens becomes less elastic and difficult to focus near images
presbyopia
near sightedness
myopia
far sightedness
hyperopia
eyeball is too blank in near sightedness… blank lenses fix this, and image is focus in blank of fovea
long, concave, front
eyeball is too blank in far sightedness… blank lenses fix this, and image is focus in blank of fovea
short, convex, back
ear transduces sound waves to blank
mechanical
blank cells in ear respond to mechanical waves
hair
sound wave of one frequency
tone
how we measure sound intensity
decibel
study in which experimental subjects unknowingly become control subjects, and vice versa, at some point in the study
double blind crossover
in blank all the carrier sites are occupied and further increasing the concentration of solute will have no effect on the rate of diffusion
saturation
The uneven clustering of cutaneous receptors in order to provide sensitivity to body areas that need it most
punctate distribution
describes the state of vision where an object at infinity is in sharp focus with the eye lens in a neutral or relaxed state
emmetriopia
is the progressive activation of a muscle by successive recruitment of contractile units (motor units) to accomplish increasing gradations of muscle contraction
motor unit recruitment
these next few are receptor, effector, function
okay
inflammation
damaged skin cells, vasodilation to let blood in to repair cells, homeostasis
tendon jerk reflex
muscle spindles stretching, quadricep muscle, homeostasis
plantar reflex
touch receptor, plantar flexors, protection
blink reflex
photoreceptors, orbicularis muscles, protection
pupillary light reflex
photoreceptors, iris, homeostasis
romberg test
photoreceptors/vestibules, core muscles, homeostasis
ciliospinal reflex
nociceptors, iris, clinical
swallow reflex
touch, esophagus smooth muscles, homeostasis
eye convergence reflex
photoreceptors, extrinsic eye muscles, protection
corneal reflex
touch/pain, orbicularis muscles, protection
nystagmus reflex
endolymph fluid (vestibular), extrinsic eye muscles, homeostasis
functional unit of a contraction
sarcomere
thin filament
actin
thick filament
myosin
actin contains these two things
troponin and tropomyosin
muscle contraction blank muscle while blank slides over blank
shortens, actin, myosin
single quick contraction of muscle
simple twitch
three phases of contraction
latent, contraction, relaxation
four events of latent period
stimulus applied, ach released into synaptic cleft, ach binds to receptors on muscle, depolarization along sarcolemma, action potential, action potential goes down t tubules through the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions are released into sarcoplasm, calcium ions bind to troponin
latent period looks like blank on graph
flat line
contraction is the blank
formation of cross bridges between actin and myosin
longest phase
relaxation phase
why is relaxation phase longest
active transport requires atp so it is most complex
event during relaxation phase
calcium ions removed from troponin and pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum
spatial summation is aka
recruitment
muscle is made of many blank units
motor
motor unit goes by the blank law
all or none
each motor unit has a different blank
threshold
strength of a contraction is due to the blank of the blank
sum, motor units
an increase in strength of muscle contraction due to summation brought about by increasing strength of the stimulus by recruiting more motor units
spatial summation
temporal summation is aka
tetanus
individual fibers contract more blank if stimuli come blank together
strongly, closer
tetanus is due to increasing blank of stimulus
frequency
response of a skeletal or cardiac muscle to one single action potential
twitch
place where the nerve enters the body of that muscle
motor point
this depends on antigens on the surface of RBC and antibodies in your serum
blood type
molecule recognized by body as being foreign
antigen
immunoglobulins that are special proteins produced and secreted by B-lymphocytes in response to a specific antigen
antibody
an antibody consists of these threee things
binding site, 2 heavy chains, 2 light chains
when antigen and antibody react blank occurs
agglutation
agglutation is blank
clumping of blood
special class of white blood cell that produces antibodies
B-lymphocyte
B-lymphocytes develop in the blank
bone marrow
this cell secretes antibodies
plasma cell
this cell remembers antigens
memory cell
called the d antigen
rh factor
when fetal blood is attacked by mothers anti Rh antibodies
erythroblastosis fetalis
erythroblastosis is prevented by blank
Rhogam
if wrong type of blood is transfused then it is
rejected
two types of agglutation
minor, major
agglutation where donor blood has antibodies that react with recipient but have little effect
minor agglutation
agglutation where recipients have antibodies that attack donor blood
major
universal recipient
AB
universal donor
O
produced by pumping action of heart into arterial blood vessels
blood pressure
volume of blood ejected per beat
stroke volume
beats per minute
heart rate
amount of blood pumped per minute
cardiac output
map means
mean arterial pressure
TPR means
total peripheral resistance
CO means
cardiac output
cardiac output formula
CO = Stroke volume x heart rate
blank must overcome blank to drive blood
pressure, resistance
resistance is due to blank between blood and walls of vessels
friction
another cardiac output formula
CO = MAP / TPR
Mean arterial pressure formula
1/3 (systolic - diastolic) + diastolic
peak arterial pressure
systole
minimum pressure
diastole
blood pressure is affected by blank and blank
cardiac output, total peripheral resistance
higher cardiac output raises blank
systolic pressure
higher total peripheral resistance raises blank
diastolic pressure
diagnostic tool to evaluate the heart and measures electrical activity
EKG
the pacemaker of the heart
SA node
Sequence of electrical activity of heart
SA node in right atrium, left atrium, AV node, Bundle of His, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, spreads over ventricle surface
be able to label an EKG graph
okay… in notes
normal PR range in seconds
.12 - .2
normal QRS range
<.1
normal QT range
<.4
P is the
depolarization of atria
QRS is the
depolarization of the ventricle
T is the
repolarization of the ventricle
if PR is prolonged it means a problem with blank and is called a blank
conduction through AV node, first degree heart block
if QRS is prolonged it means blank and is usually due to blank
slower speed of stimulus through ventricles, block in bundle branches
if QT is prolonged it can be due to these two things
drugs, low Ca or K ions, hypothermia, myocardia/ischemia
prolonged QT tends to predispose patient to blank
ventricular arrhythmias
shortened QT can be due to these two things
drugs, high serum Calcium ions
this is when ventricular systole is skipped
2nd degree heart block
You see blank with no blank in a 2nd degree heart block
P, QRS
this is when there is no conduction through the AV node
3rd degree heart block
3rd degree heart block is when blank waves do not agree with blank
P, QRS
this is when there are premature beats arising in ventricles
premature ventricular contraction
premature ventricular contraction occurs when the ventricles are not blank
stimulated simultaneously
asynchronous contraction of the heart
fibrillation
atrial fibrillation shows a blank pattern in place of blank waves on an EKG and is blank life threatening
irregular wavy, P, not
ventricular fibrillation shows no blank but shows blank on an EKG and is blank life threatening
cardiac output, irregular waves, very
the first heart is due to the closing of blank and occurs during blank on the EKG
AV valves, qrs
the second heart is due to the closing of blank and occurs blank on the EKG
semilunar valves, after T
heart rate and pulse speed should blank during inspiration
increase
heart rate and pulse speed should blank during expiration
decrease
during the valsalva maneuver venous return initially blank which causes the baroreflex to blank heart rate. then the amount of blood flow blank because of the maneuver which causes a blank in heart rate due to the baroreflex
increases, decrease, decreases, increase
re breathing air from a plastic bag increases the amount of blank which causes the baroreflex to blank heart rate
CO2, increase
the higher the ventricular blank, the higher the blank
volume, pressure
these two waves could overlap if someone exercises hard enough in an ECG
p and t
the angle of the heart increases during blank and decreases during blank
inspiration, expiration
normal angle of the heart
60 degrees
FEV1 is the blank
volume of air expired during first second of FVC measurement
fvc is the blank
forced vital capacity
during inspiration the blank contracts which creates a blank thoracic cavity
diaphragm, larger
enlarged thoracic cavity leads to a blank in pressure in the pleural space and alveoli
decrease
Palv means the pressure inside the blank
alveoli
Pple means the pressure inside the blank
pleural space
pressure gradient across lung wall
transpulmonary pressure
transpulmonary pressure equation
PT = Palv - Pple
Ppl is always blank due to blank property of lung and chest wall
negative, elastic
transpulmonary pressure is always blank in normal breathing
positive
normal FEV1 / FVC is about blank
80%
increased airway resistance especially during expiration in this disease
obstructive
in obstructive disease blank flow is obstructed
expiratory
in an obstructive disease FEV1 / FVC is blank
decreased
in blank lung disease blank is restricted and FEV1 / FVC is blank
restrictive, inflation, normal