population and the environment Flashcards
(244 cards)
1
Q
define population
A
amount of people in a defined area
2
Q
define population parameter
A
different ways population is measured
3
Q
examples of population parameters
A
distribution, density, numbers, change
4
Q
define distribution
give an example
A
how a population is spread globally and regionally
Egypt is unevenly distributed as people live closer to the Nile
5
Q
define population density
A
measurement of population per unit area
6
Q
define numbers
how is is recorded and how often
A
the amount of people in a defined area
census take place every 5-10 years
7
Q
define population change
A
increases and decreases over time
8
Q
name the 3 environmental factors that affect population
A
climate, soil fertility, natural resources
9
Q
why does climate affect population
A
- people tend to not live in areas of extreme climate (polar, desert)
- higher population density between tropics where climates are more manageable
- affects food productivity negatively and positively (yield, types of crops, droughts or floods)
- drive levels of diseases like malaria
- climate change (housing, food, water)
10
Q
why does soil fertility affect population
A
- water and nutritional content in soil affects agriculture
- volcanic soils are prone to hazards so less people live there
11
Q
how do natural resources affect population
A
- clean water supply needed for hydration, irrigation, sanitation
- areas with fossil fuels have better energy supply
- areas where natural resources can be exploited have more people so they can earn money
12
Q
define health
A
state of complete physical, mental and social well being
13
Q
define life expectancy
A
number of years a person is expected to live from north in a country
14
Q
define prevalence rate
A
number of people in a given population who are suffering from a particular condition
15
Q
define infectious diseases
A
disease caused by organisms and can spread
16
Q
define mortality
A
death of people
17
Q
define disability-adjusted life years
A
the number of years of healthy life lost by being in poor health
18
Q
define morbidity
A
illness and reporting of diseases
19
Q
define attack rate
A
number of cases of a disease diagnoses in an area divided by total population over the period of an epidemic
20
Q
define infant mortality rate
A
number of deaths per children under 1 per 1000 live births
21
Q
define non communicable disease
A
disease that is not caused by infectious agents
22
Q
define case mortality rate
A
number of people dying from a disease divided by the number of those diagnosed as having the disease
23
Q
define incidence rate
A
number of people in a population who develop a particular condition in a particular period of time
24
Q
define epidemic
A
infectious disease in a community at a particular time
25
define pandemic
disease prevalent over a whole country or world
26
how has economic improvements improved health
- technology for food production increases food security and decreases famine and malnutrition
- transport- medical supplies
- improvements in sewage
- trading of resources
27
how has social improvements improved health
- improved sanitation
- better education on diseases
- vaccines and medication
- better training on medical staff
- aid programmes in developing countries
28
what is the epidemiological transition model
by Abdul Omra in 1971- over time as a country develops there will be a transition from infectious to non-communicable diseases
29
feature of phase 1 of ETM
- 20-40 LE
- poor sanitation
- unreliable food supply
- infectious and nutritional deficiencies
30
features of phase 2 of ETM
- 30-50 years LE
- improved sanitation
- better diets
- advances in medicine
- reduced number of infections
- increases in cardiovascular diseases
31
features of phase 3 of ETM
- 50-60 years ETM
- increased ageing
- poor diets
- less activity
- addictions
- high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes
- smoking related diseases
32
features of phase 4 of ETM
- 70+ years LE
- reduce risk behaviour
- health promotion
- disease prevention
- new treatments
- heart disease, strokes, cancers
- more ageing disease like dementia
33
features of phase 5a of ETM
- potential reversal of LE
- lack of exercise
- ignoring risk behaviours
- chronic heart disease, stroke, congestive heart diseases
34
features of phase 5b of ETM
- reversal of LE
- globalisation of disease due to travel
- increase in population density
- concerns about vaccines
- revolution of microbes and it’s resistance
- virus evolving and causing pandemics (SARS and COVID)
- reemergence of TB, measles, whooping cough
35
explain classical/western model of ETM
slow decline in death rate and lower fertility
36
explain accelerated model of ETM
falls in mortality are much more rapid
37
explain contemporary/delayed model of ETM
decreases in mortality but no decline in fertility
38
work of John Snow in 1854
mapped cholera but using a dot distribution map of London to discover the contaminated water pump in Soho
39
how does climate impact the prevalence of diseases
- vector borne diseases like malaria like high temperatures and humidity
- droughts and floods can lead to crop failure and famines
- seasonal affective disorder
- allergies like hayfever
- valley fever from the spreading of fungus
- extreme cold= pneumonia
- extreme hot= heat strokes
- high temperature promote food borne diseases like salmonella
40
how does topography affect disease prevalence
- low lying areas like flood plains are prone to water borne diseases from poor drainage and stagnant waters- India on Ganges floodplain
41
how does air quality affect disease prevalence
- 2017- 42 million deaths caused by ambient air
- LICs and NEEs like a India more at risk due to industries
- burning fossil fuels
- respiratory problems
- 80% of air pollution deaths link to heart diseases and strokes
- 2.5 billion rural households use solid fuels- women and children at risk
42
air quality in china
- rapid industrialisation, transportation. coal power plants
- 1.4 million premature deaths due to u healthy levels of PM2.5 in 2019
- 6 states in China are rates poor in air quality like Tianjin and Shanghai
- air pollution has fallen by 42.3% 2013-2021
43
how does water quality affect prevalence of disease
- 2 million deaths are from unsafe water and poor sanitation
- diarrhoea diseases like cholera
- stagnant waters in man made reservoirs promote mosquitoes
- oil spills contaminate water and lead to digestive problems
- 260 million cases of schistosomiasis due to parasitic worms
- toxicants can poison water
44
water quality india
- contaminated ground water
- stunted growth, bone deformity, liver diseases
- 70% of surface water is unfit for consumption
- 2.3 million premature deaths in 2019
45
features of malaria
- tropical vector borne disease
- transmitted by female Anopheles mosquito
- children under 5 are most vulnerable, make up 67% of all cases
- increased prevention has led to 60% reduction in mortality since 2000
- plasmodium f most common
46
distribution of malaria
- sub-saharan africa has the highest concentration of cases worldwide
- common in south asia like india due to monsoons
- climate change may lead to more unexpected places having cases
47
physical factors affecting incidence of malaria
- average temperature 16-32C
- hotter temperatures speed up malaria cycle
- more active at dawn and dusk
- breed in clean, warm, stagnant water and encouraged my rainfall
- areas with less seasonal variation (coasts) have higher chance of susceptible
- less transmission in altitudes above 1500m and rainfall below 1000m
48
socioeconomic factors affecting incidence of malaria
- urbanisation- lower transmission in urban areas due to pollution, or faster transmission from high population density
- lack of healthcare and education
- low immunity in groups like children and elderly
- disease of poverty (58% of global burden come from poorest 20%)
- occupation- farmers in rice paddy
- income affects treatment
- poor house infrastructure
49
malaria impacts on economic well being
- costs globally are around $15-18 billion
- economic costs for families for medication, travel, treatments
- economic costs for government for drugs, education, medical staff
- loss of work
50
management and mitigation strategies of malaria
- vector control
- insecticide- treated mosquito nets
- indoor residual spraying with pyrethroid insecticide
- mosquito could
- anti-malarial drugs
- RTS,S vaccine
- artemisinin- based combination therapy (ACT)
- roll back malaria programme
- WHO wants to eliminate malaria from 35 countries
51
features of coronary/ ischaemic heart disease
- disease of affluence
- leading causes of death worldwide- 9.5 million deaths annually
- 2.3 million people living with CHD in UK
- symptoms: angina (chest pain), heart attacks and heart failure
52
malaria in nigeria
- 97% of population at risk
- year round transmission in the South and 3 months or less in the North
- 27% of malaria burden globally
53
factors for malaria in nigeria
- 26.9C and 1165mm rain
- overcrowding- 22 million housing shortages in 2018
- 83 million Nigerians lack access to healthcare
- lack of piped water and more stagnant waters
54
impacts of malaria in nigeria
- 20% of all deaths under 5 in 2021
- WHO- annual reduction of 1.4% in Africas economic growth
55
management of malaria in nigeria
- national malaria elimination program (NMEP) made a plan to reduce malaria morbidity to less thag 10% by 2025
- world bank and african development bank helptowards malaria combat
- SuNMaP distribute nets and educate people
56
features of chd
- disease of affluence
- leading cause of death worldwide- 9.5 million deaths annually
- 2.3 million people living with chd in UK
- symptoms: angina, heart attacks and heart failure
57
physical factors leading to chd
- air quality- industrialisation has lead to increased expose to PM
- optimum temperature range where CHD mortality is lowest because extreme temperatures puts strain on cardiovascular system, varies regionally (19.3-22.3C in London)
- changing relief requires more physical effort
- food- Japanese diet of fish increases CHD
58
socio-economic factors leading to chd
- 1 in 7 men and 1 in 12 women
- social deprivation- premature deaths by CHD 3x higher in North
- tobacco use- lowers good cholesterol
- alcohol use- raised blood sugar, bad cholesterol
- high blood pressure
- poor nutrition
- overweight/ obesity
- diabetes
- infrequency exercise
- ethnicity- south asian higher risk of heart disease in UK
- family history
- rapid urbanisation- poor housing, pollution, convenience lifestyle
59
impacts of chd on health
- angina
- heart attack
- bypass surgery
- rehabilitation
- people taking medications
60
impacts of chd on economic well being
- healthcare cost- 2018 £9 billion to NHS
- loss of productivity - 2018 £19 billion lost to UK
- costs linked to smoking related diseases - global loss of $200 billion per year
- loss of income due to time of work
61
management and mitigation of chd
- health education- promote healthy choices
- policy and legislation - tobacco policies, taxes on foods, more cycle paths and green spaces
- medical treatment and secondary prevention- statins, stents, beta blockers, blood thinning, angiotensin, surgeries
62
role of international agencies in promoting health
work with governments to spread awareness and distribute resources (top down)
63
examples of international agencies and what they do
WHO- combating infectious diseases, supporting mother and babies, helped to eradicate smallpox 1980, supporting with sdvice with Covid, HIV etc
UNIAIDS- improving access and care for HIV/AIDS
UNICEF- reduce child mortality
World Bank- fight poverty
World food programme- eradicate hunger globally
64
role of NGOs in promoting health
funded by public donation to directly help communities (bottom up)
65
work of Tam Tam Africa
- distributed tens of thousands of bed nets across Africa
- UYO Nigeria 300 nets for women with high risk pregnancies and cash transfers to incentivise them visiting health clinics
- target pregnant women and children
66
work of Gates Foundation
- 5% of $4.3 bil invested annually fighting against malaria
- map malaria and show where, when and who it affects
- invests in partners to have large scale access to bed nets, tests, medicines
- $140 million commitment over 4 years to support new initaiaties directed by African Leaders to end malaria
67
work of MSF
- employs 35,000 people globally
- 90% recruiter locally
- 2018, 96.2% come from 6.5 million individual donors
- does not accept contributions from companies compromising their ability to provide independent care
- refuse funding from EU as they stopped migrants fleeing Middle East
68
work of global heart network
- technology platform to address provision of cardiac care globally
- faster communication, large database to share information, fundraising
69
feature of ozone depletion
- caused by halogenated chemicals like CFCs found in fridges, insulation and spray cans
- destroy ozone layer and allow UV to come in
- chemicals react with and destroy ozone molecule in extreme cold
polar regions
70
effect on health of ozone depletion
- lead to skin cancer where 90% of non-melanoma cases are through UV exposure
- lead to cataracts and 10% depletion of ozone layer and 2 million new cases every year
71
climate change impact on health and environment
- storm and weather events
- air and water pollution
- vector borne diseases spread more
- trauma and psychological effects
- 2030-2050 250,000 additional deaths per year from climate change
72
thermal stress and health
- 900 excess deaths in UK by heatwaves in 2019
- dehydration and heat strokes
- wild firee, smogs, water shortages
- less winter mortality and more heat related mortality
73
changing of vector borne diseases and effect on health
- warmer temperatures and changing precipitous
- aedes mosquito carrying dengue could expose additional 1 billion people but end of century
- malaria spread to other places like europe as they get hotter
- last longer and spread to more places
74
changing agricultural productivity and effect on health
- increased yield mid and high latitudes
- crops like maize can be grown in lower latitudes
- longer growing season in places like russia
- droughts and floods
- places may become too dry
- more pests and aphids
- less water along Nile
75
changing nutritional standards and effect on health
- different crops available
- increased food prices and may lower dietary quality
- increased livestock production like cattle and produce more methane
- more clearance of forests
- weather hazards can lead to famine
- promotion of healthier diets to reduce climate change
- deficiencies from lack of availability
76
what causes population change
natural change- difference crude birth rate and crude death rate
migration change- difference between immigrants and emigrants
77
define crude birth rate
number of live births per 1000 of a population per year
78
define crude death rate
number of deaths per 1000 of a population per year
79
define emigrant
person leaving their home area or country in order to settle elsewhere
80
define immigrant
person moving into an area of country in order to settle here
81
define life expectancy
average number of years a person is expected to live depending on the year and location they were born
82
define total fertility rate
number on average of children born per woman of the reproductive age in an area or country
83
define replacement fertility rate
number of children each woman needs to have to maintain current population levels
84
define growth rate
% change in a year of population
85
factors affecting natural population change
-growth rates and replacement fertility (2.3)
- infant mortality
- affluence
- healthcare
- education
- religion- catholicism and islam condemn contraception
- gender
- child marriage
- population policies
86
explain chinas one child policy
introduced policies to control the baby boom and stop strain on resources. however they took it away in 2015 and increased to two children to enjoy rage women to have children as there is a rapidly ageing population
87
what is the dtm
developed by warren Thompson in 1929 and is based on recorded changes since the industrial revolution of natural population change
88
describe stage 1 of DTM
- high stationary or fluctuating
- few remote groups
- BR high and DR high
- stable and fluctuating population
- children needed to work on land
- disease, famine, poor medical knowledge, no contraception
- religious reasons
89
describe stage 2 of DTM
- early expanding
- Niger, Angola
- BR high and DR falling rapidly
- very rapid natural increase
- no family planning and children needs to work
- improvement in food and clear water and medical vaccines
90
describe stage 3 of DTM
- late expanding
- Egypt, Pakistan
- BR starts to fall and DR falls more slowly
- natural increase slows
- fewer children needed
- contraception and improvements to food, healthcare and hygeine
91
describe stage 4 of DTM
- low stationary or fluctuating
- UK, USA
- BR low, DR levels out
- slow increase
- more family planning
- more women working
- good healthcare
92
describe stage 5 of DTM
- decline
- Japan, Germany
- Br falls and DR remains low
- small natural decrease
- elderly population as less people in reproductive ages
- higher population reaching life expectancy
93
strengths of DTM
- easy to compare
- theoretically works and is easy to understand
- can show development
94
limitations of DTM
- eurocentric view
- assumes all countries go in certain order, unlike China which skipped a stage
- original model didn’t have 5th stage so it is outdated
- doesn’t include migration
- government and political intervention
- doesn’t show differences within high and low income, or urban and rural
95
how does niger fit into stage 2 of DTM
- droughts and desertification affect good supply
- internal conflict
- muslim
dominated country so religious reasons lead to high birth rates
- mainly primary sector so slow economic development and children needed to work
- death rates lower than expected due to NGOs
- young population with 49% under 15
- 6.4 fertility rate
96
how does canada fit into stage 4 of DTM
- range of climatic types
- mountainous and tundra- hard to live in
- rich in minerals
- large country with small population 37 million
- tertiary sector
97
why doesnt canada fit into DTM
migration increases younger population and increases the population which stops it from going into stage 5
98
define population pyramid
age /sex structure of a country or area
99
define demographic dividend
where birth rates and death rates fall, causing dependency ratio to decrease as there is a bigger working population
100
what can you see from population pyramids
- shows past changes
- predicts short term and long term changes
- impacts of conflict and disease
- indicate life expectancy
- idea of what stage of DTM
- shows impact of migration
- shows dependents
- suggested information about birth and IMR
101
reasons for uneven pyramids
- migration
- war
- epidemics
- government policies
102
describe population pyramid of stage 1
lots of young people, and going up like a triangle to a small amount of elderly population
103
describe population pyramid of stage 2
triangle like- big youthful population and gradually gets smaller going up
104
describe population pyramid of stage 3
big youthful population and working population, and smaller elderly population
105
describe population pyramid of stage 4
smaller youthful population with biggest working population, and then elderly population
106
describe population pyramid of stage 5
small youthful population with a bigger elderly population than working
107
benefits of a youthful population
- faster growth and development
- cheaper workforce
108
weaknesses of a youthful population
- increasing demands for improving maternal and child healthcare
- need to provide food, water and energy
- governments need to keep up with schooling
109
benefits of an elderly population
- some pensioners are healthy and affluent which allows growth in leisure, tourism and private health and care homes
- help look after grandchildren so parents can work
- less unemployed so more jobs available
- more volunteers
110
weaknesses of an elderly population
- welfare and healthcare costs
- pensions time bomb- pensions will increasingly cost as there is a smaller active population
111
why does demographic dividend happen
few elderly due to previous poor healthcare and falling fertility rate
112
benefits of demographic dividend
- attracts more investments from TNCs
- more women working
- growing market
- more disposable income to spend
113
how to work out dependency ratio
young dependents + elderly dependents / economically active
x100
114
population facts of japan
- 126.8 million population, estimated to decrease to 108 million by 2050
- 336.33 people/km^2
- 10th population rank
- 0.34% growth rate
- 84 LE
- 7.1/1000 BR
- 11/1000 DR
- 28% of pop over 65
- 1.4 fertility rate
- 98.5% japanese so little migration, 1.5% from China
- income of $48,324 per annum
115
culture and history of japan
- kept main traditions like children after marriage and taking care of elderly
- post WW2 Japan had one of the strongest economies in the world
- typically traditional and paternalistic but now women have joined the workforce
116
physical environment of japan
- 91% live in cities
- 75% mountainous
- 68% forest
- 6800+ islands but 97% on main 4
- climate varies from temperate to rain with typhoons
- mountains overcome by terracing- 100 people/km^2
- tropical in the South like Tokyo- 6158 people/km^2
117
reasons for ageing population in japan
- excellent healthcare, sanitation and living standards
- low fat diets so lower obesity and heart problems
- air is cleaner as they rely on nuclear or hydroelectric
- contraception is accessible
- high school costs
- less marriage rates so less children
- women are more equally treated
118
positive impacts of japan population decline
- due to globalisation the secondary sector is still successful
- less pressure on schools
- inceased demand for leisure activities for elderly which creates more jobs
- new robot technology to assist elderly- worth 52 billion to the economy
- “grey dollarl
119
negative impacts of japan population decline
- if fertility remains low, they need 650,000 immigrants a year
- hindered economic growth from demographic debt
- 40% of public spending on elderly
- pressure on care and medical services
- 6 million elderly will live alone with no family support
- high crime within pensioners
120
government responses to japan
- consumption tax doubled from 5 to 10% to fund pensions
- “new angel plan” by providing free healthcare and improving working hours for mothers
- retirement age increased to 70
- encouraged immigration of skilled foreign workers
121
population facts of Niger
- 21.5 million
- 80% rural
- 58.2% below 18
- close to half living in poverty
- maternal mortality is high- 1 in 187 women
- 75% of young children under 5 are deprived from 3 or more social services
- adult literacy low- 14% for women and 42% for men
- 7 children per woman
122
positive impacts of Niger youthful population
- higher population in the future
- provide cheap workforce and a growing market for foreign investors
123
negative impacts of Niger youthful
population
- increasing demand for maternal and child healthcare and education
- need to provide food, water and energy and shelter for growing population
- low literacy rate and poorly educated workforce
- high maternal mortality
- high levels of acute and chronic malnutrition
- girls less likely to go to school
- 76% girls married before 18
- only 50% of children receive a complete set of vaccinations
- unemployment as they try move to cities
124
define migration
movement of people across a specified boundary in order to establish a new permanent or semi permanent residence
125
define economic migration
person who has voluntarily left their country looking for employment and economic opportunity in another
126
define forced migration
forced out of their country due to events like war and natural disasters
127
define asylum seeker
person who has fled their country and applies for asylum in the grounds they have a well founded fear of death or persecution, but the claim is not yet determined
128
define refugee
a person fleeing civil war or natural disasters and has a successful asylum claim
129
push factors for migration
- war, conflict, political instability
- ethnic or religious persecution
- natural or man made disasters
- poverty
-unemployment
- low wages and poor working conditions
- limited opportunities
- shortage of resources
130
pull factors for migration
- better quality of life
- varied employment opportunities
- better healthcare and education services
- political stability and freedom
- specific type of environment wanted
- range of services to cater for their needs
131
social and health implications on country of origin
+ reduced pressure on healthcare and education
- loss of traditional culture
- break up of families and communities
- “brain drain”
- most vulnerable remain at risk
- workers vulnerable to exploitation
132
social and health implications on country of destination
+ multiculturalism
+ contribute to services
- pressure on maternal and child healthcare
- pressure on schools
- rise in ethnic and racial problems
- increase in crime
- increase in infectious diseases from different places
- increased pressure to treat new infectious diseases and NCDs
- pressure on housing
133
economic implications on country of origin
+ reduced pressure on resources
+ less unemployment
+ remittance sent back home
+ migrants develop new skills to take back home
- lose skilled workforce
- decline in services
134
economic implications on country of destination
+ overcome any labour shortages
+ provide competition for work so cheaper labour
+ more people spend money and pay taxes
+ increade size of workforce so economic boom
+ reduce dependency
- pressure on jobs
135
environmental implications on country of origin
+ reduces waste and resource usage
- farmlands and buildings abandoned
- less environmental management
136
environmental implications on country of destination
- pressure on land for new infrastructure
- pressure on natural resources
- more waste
137
political implications on country of origin
+ may introduce pro natal policies to influence people to stay
138
political implications on country of destination
- pressure to control immigration
- rise of anti immigration, right wing parties
-political disagreement like Brexit
139
demographic changes in country of origin
- lower birth rates
- ageing population
- underpopulation
- likely less men
140
demographic changes in country of destination
- balances population structure
- migrants in reproductive age
- overpopulation
141
define food security
when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life
142
food production patterns
- 1960s global food supplies could provide 2,300 calories per person per day
- 2015 the world could produce 2940 calories per person per day
- 2018- 820 million people still suffered undernutrition
- LICs experience rapid food production to feed growing population
- HICs production had slowed as most foods are imported
143
why has food production increased
- green revolution- machinery, herbicides, pesticides
- irrigation
- GM crops
144
why does East Asia and North America produce a lot of food
- suitable climate
- investment
145
why does Central America and Africa produce smal amounts of food
- lack of resources
- large areas of land unsuitable for farming
- poor soil
- unsuitable climates
146
food consumption patterns
- FAO shows calorie consumption has increased steadily since the 1960s
- 12% of global population were undernourished in 2012
- HICs consume more food and can import more foods
- LICs consume less
- NEEs have been consuming more, including meat
- 50% of consumption globally comes from cereals
- China consumes 9x more meat then they once did
147
define undernourishment/ hunger
dietary intake and calories does not meet their requirements
148
define malnutrition
people do not receive the correct balance of nutrients
149
features of monsoon climate
- related to seasonal reversal in wind direction
- impact upon weather in terms of humidity, cloud formation and precipitation
- links to tricellular model as ITCZ moves across hemispheres
- affects South Asia mainly like India and Bangladesh
- monsoon rain is 70% of India’s annual rainfall so is crucial for agriculture
150
features of wet monsoon
- may- october
- caused by effect of sun on water and land where heated surface water mixes round in the ocean and is hester slower then the land
- land is heated to above 28C
- 1kg of water takes 3x more energy to heat
- Himalaya mountains keep the air rising in the North
151
features of dry monsoon
- winds are blowing from polar regions
a stays dry and experiences droughts
152
impacts of monsoon
- affects agriculture - flooding or droughts decreases yields, irrigation, rice farming needs 10-12cm of deeo water
- settlements are adapted to have wide overhanging eaves to protect from sun and rain and streets have deep and wide drains
- health- malaria and dengue fever from stagnant waters and water borne diseases like typhoid
- industry- relies on rain for hydroelectric power, to supply homes and businesses
- floods- mudslides can bury villages
2005, monsoon claimed 1000 lives in Maharashtra
august 2022- pakistan floods killed 937 people and 30 million were badly affected, $15-20 billion loss
153
features of mediterranean climate
- warm coastal regions between 30-34 degrees latitude
- around mediterranean sea like Italy and Greece and california and child
- in summer high pressure belts drift North and go South during Nov- Feb
- stable atmosphere creates cloudless conditions, causing sunny days and cool nights
154
climate of mediterranean climate
- july and august experience hottest temperatures of 26C
- november and winter months have highest precipitation of 85mm
- summers are warm and dry, winters are mild and wetter
- cooler in winter but average 9-10C
- approximately 50cm of rain per year
155
vegetation of mediterranean climate
- sclerophyll- plants adapted to survive in semi arid climates
- shrubs like olives and grapes
- citrus fruits
- waxy leaves to conserve moisture
- needles to reduce surface area and evaporation
- long roots to bring up water
- thick bark to protect from forest fires
156
impacts of mediterranean climate
- viticulture- grape cultivation for wine
- citrus fruits, olives and figs
- over development of tourism and agriculture puts pressure on water and fertile soil
- climate change can lead to arid and semi arid belts
- over irrigation results in ground water aquifers not being recharged so less waters
- wildfires- every year more than 50,000 firee burn 600-800k hectares of land, leading to biodiversity loss, soil erosion and water scarcity
- high demand for pesticides, fertilisers and water irrigation (80% of water used for irrigation)
157
almeria spain
- use greenhouses to grow crops
- 40,000 hectares of greenhouses producing over 2.7 million tonnes of produce each year
- hydroponics and aeroponics
158
composition of soil
45% minerals
25% air
5% organic matter like humus, roots and organisms
159
why is soil important
- they recycle nutrients- carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus
- regulate water- rain, snowmelt
- filter pollutants
- sustain animal and plant growth
160
how does climate affect soil formation
- hot/wet climate leads to further decay of organic matter
- too much rain leads to leaching
- too little rain leads to capillary action
- for every 10C increase in temperature, chemical weathering doubles
161
how does time affect soil formation
- sandstone weathers quickly but granite is longer
- 30cm of soil takes 1000-10,000 years to form
162
how do biotic components affect soil formation
- earthworms and spiders break up the soil and aerate it
- plant leaves and rotting roots and humus
- fungi break up the soil
163
how does geology affect soil formation
- sandstone creates free draining soil whereas clay produces waterlogged soil
- calcareous rocks from nutrient rich soil
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how does relief and aspect affect soil formation
- steep slops lead to thin soils so more erosion
- soils on sunny sides of valleys are deeper
- mountainous soils are thinned due to altitude
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define soil erosion
wearing away of the top layer of soil, which is the most fertile containing organic matter and nutrients
36 billion tonnes of topsoil is lost worldwide each year
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water erosion methods
sheet erosion- raindrops loosen soil overland flow can transport topsoil
river bank erosion- soil is washed away
gully erosion- if rills aren’t required, they grow into larger gullies
rill erosion- short lived and well defined streams
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wind erosion methods
saltation- soil transportation where suspended particles are lifted and bounce along the ground
abrasion and attrition- suspended particles cause abrasion of soil surface and can break into smaller particles
creep- particles roll when bigger than 0.5mm
suspension- particles lifted into the air and transported
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problems with erosion
water- topsoil removed, soil depth reduced, increased runoff which causes more erosion and flooding, damage to water courses
wind- topsoil removed, soil depth reduced, seeds blown away, sandblasting of plants, deposition on roads and in drains
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soil horizons
o (organic)- humus
a (top soil)- minerals with humus
e (eluviation layer)- leached minerals and organic matter
b (subsoil)- deposited minerals and metal salts
c (parent rocks)- partly weathered rock
r (bedrock)- unweathered parent rock
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management of soil erosion
- remove sediment from drains and ditches
- contour ploughing to prevent rill and gully formation
- stabilise with manure
- plant cover crops
- decrease runoff from roads
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define water logging and causes
when water rather than air fills the pore spaces in soil
- occurs due to excess water input due to precipitation, irrigation or flooding and not enough percolation or evapotranspiration
- occur from excess groundwater input which is not matched by losses
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water logging effect on agriculture
-limited oxygen supply which restricts plant respiration
- roots may rot in stagnant water and kill the plant
- leach minerals for plant growth or bring unwanted minerals
- water lowers temperature of soil which slows photosynthesis
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water logging management
- avoid over irrigation
- drain soil using underground pipes or ditches
- change composition of the soil
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define salinisation and causes
form of land degradation in arid and semi arid climates
- increase in the amount of salts in the soil which are brought to the surface when high rates of evaporation and transpiration combine with low precipitation and poor soil drainage
- capillary action draws underground water that contains more salts to the surface
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effect of salinisation on agriculture
- salts are toxic to plants
- affect how plants absorb water as osmotic potential decreases
- break up natural soil structure
- salty run off water enters rivers
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salinisation management
- avoid over irrigation by using techniques like drip irrigation
- good crop selection with deep roots to maximise water extraction
- good soil management like of pH
- establishing and maintaining trees and shrubs to maintain water table
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define structural deterioration and causes
loss of soil structure especially the pores between soil particles
- caused by heavy machinery or trampling by livestock compacting land which leads to water percolation and results in gully erosion
- caused by reduction in organic matter due to harvesting crops
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types of structural deterioration
granular and crumb- individual particles of sand and silt grouped together in small grains
blocky structures- soil particles that cling together in nearly square or angular blocks with sharp edges
prismatic or columnar- soil particles formed into vertical columns or pillars
platy- aggregated in thin plated or sheets piled horizontally
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structural deterioration effect on agriculture
- compacted soil where plant roots can’t grow
- loss of pore spaces which leads to reduced capacity of water
- land is hard to plough
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management of structural deterioration
- replace lost organic matter with compost
- moving livestock regularly
- plant trees
- using existing lines to minimise compaction
- low inflation of tyres
- additional tool attachments to loosen compacted soil
- management of stock level to sustainable levels
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burkina faso stone lines
- building of stone contour lines 0.5-1.5m high to slow the rainwater and reduce erosion
- cereal harvest of Burkina Faso expected to double in the next few years
- less erosion which leads to more stable soil to grow crops on
- PATECORE project have already tackled 100,000 hectares of land
- agricultural yields rise by up to 50%
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features of chernozem soil (location, climate, features)
- black soils rich in organic content and minerals like phosphorus and ammonia
- found in mainly northern hemisphere like USA, Canada, Russia and Ukraine
- clay structure good for water retention
- develop in continental climate of cold winter and hot summers
- support tall grass vegetation
- 15% humus compared to normal 4%
- grasses draw up calcium causing an accumulation at the surface
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uses of chernozem soil
- cereal agriculture- maize, barley, wheat
- potatoes and soybeans
- cattle ranching
- Ukraine top sunflower seed oil originator in the world
fertile soil for planting in both winter and summer
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future problems with chernozem soil
- soil erosion from poor land management- 500 million tonnes of soil are eroded annually in Ukraine and for every dollar added of agricultural value, 1/3 is lost through erosion
- climate change leads to more droughts which leads to desertification of soil so less moisture can be retained
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features of podzol soil
- taiga and subarctic climate across North America, heathland and moors of the UK
- prolonged harsh winters and cool summers
- coniferous forest- pine and source
- coniferous trees shelter the ground from drying winds
- accumulation of hard pan iron beneath zone of leaching
- upland sheep farming and breeding of grouse
- deforestation exposes more of the soil and destroys the forest
- more precipitation than evapotranspiration
- acidic as leaf litter from coniferous trees are
- arable farming is difficult due to poor nutrient cycle and waterlogging from hard pan of iron
- treatment with lime to reduce acidity
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features of latosol soil
- red/yellow with only the top thin layer of fertile soil as most the nutrients are stored in vegetation
- rich in iron and aluminium
- found in tropical rainforests
- north brazil, central-west africa, mexico, southern india and china
- high temperature and humidity
- fast chemical weathering of bedrock forming soils of 30-40cm deep
- moisture surplus so there is a downward movement of water through soils (leaching)
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uses on latosol soil and problems
- slash and burn adds nutrients from ash to grow crops on for 2-3 years
recently have come under pressure and the soil is not given enough time to recover which affects it in the long run
- grow coffee, sugar, soybeans, rice
- cattle ranching
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what type of systems are farms
open- with inputs, processes and outputs
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inputs in a farm
physical
- temperature
- precipitation
- wind
- soil type
- altitude
- aspect
- slope/ gradient
economic
- labour
- machinery
- transport
- seeds/breeding stock
- investment
the farmer
- age and experience
- knowledge and skills
- openness to new ideas
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processes in a farm
- ploughing
- sowing
- weeding
- harvesting
- calving
- feeding
- milking
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outputs in a farm
- food crops
- animal produce
- fodder crops- crops to feed livestock
- silk, cotton
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losses in a farm
- waste like manure
- soil erosion
- natural disaster and hazards- droughts, floods, disease
- unused or wasted food
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define commercial farming
majority of produce is sold and income generated is reinvested back into the farm
194
define subsistence farming
majority of produce is consumed by farmers and their families, and surplus can be sold
195
define intensive farming
high yields for the smallest amount of space
196
define capital intensive farming
money is invested into infrastructure and machinery so there are fewer people employed
197
define labour intensive farming
high number of workers leads to high output per hectare
198
define extensive fareming
farming over a large area with less workers so output is low per hectare
199
define arable farming
growing crops
200
define pastoral farming
animal and produce farming
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define agricultural productivity
amount of useful outputs in proportion to the amount of inputs, showing the efficiency of the farm
measured with total factor productivity (TFP)
202
how to improve TFP for crops
- higher yielding, disease resistant and drought or flood tolerate crops
- more efficient and timely cultivation
- using technologies that indicate precisely how much water and fertiliser to apply
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how to improve TFP for livestock
- breeding animals for favourable genetic qualities
- using better animal care and disease management
- high quality feed for greater productivity
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changes in agricultural productivity and the future
- over last 55 years, 2.5-3% increase in developing countries and 2-2.5% in more developed countries
- projections until 2050 at 2.3% growth rate
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define nomadic farming
farmers move from place to place to grow crops or graze animals on different land
206
strategies to ensure food security
- increasing access to food
- GM crops
- stones lines in burkina faso
- green revolution
- hydroponics and aeroponics
- increasing fish supply
- improving post harvest practices
- reducing growth and demand for food
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how does increasing access to food improve food security and evaluation
- import food and improve trading blocs
- redistributing food to food banks
- cash transfers, food vouchers
- WFP 20 million children received nutritious meals and school snacks and set up a scheme in Nigeria 2023-2027 to give out e-vouchers and bank transfers
- redistributing is very small scale
- - food dumping- undermines local farmers
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how does GM crops improve food security and evaluation
- genetics modification so it can have desired characteristics
- higher vitamin content, disease and climate resistant
- USA produced 68% of GM crops but UK do not produce any
- golden rice has added beta carotene and is formed in asian countries
- large scale
- - expensive, farmers dependent on companies to buy seeds, unknown effect on humans
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how does stone lines improve food security and evaluation
- stone water line built to enable rainwater to be used and slow erosion
- PATECORE project between 1987-2006
- small scale
+ yield up by 80%
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how does green revolution improve food security and evaluation
- more technology to increase amount of food and efficiency of farm
- fertilisers/pesticides, mechanisation, high yielding varieties
- large scale
- - over consumption, need money and technology
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how does hydroponics and aeroponics improve food security and evaluation
- hydroponics is when plants are grown in nutrient rich water
- aeroponics is when plants are in the air and sprayed by nutrients and water
- algeria brings in $1.5 billion a year
- - expensive, technical expertise so only takes place in HICs
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how does increasing fish supply improve food security and evaluation
- selective breeding for improved fish growth
- rice fish farming in jamalpur
- fish quotas, next size
- large scale
- - need expertise and technology
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how does improving post harvest practices improve food security and evaluation
- exposure to microorganisms makes food go bad
- also fluctuating temperatures and humidity can impact shelf life and food quality
- uganda at risk of afloxin contamination- cancer causing fungus causes food poisoning found in maize
- instead store in airtight containers, dry crops to reduce moisture, avoid contamination
+ relatively low cost
- - requires knowledge and skills
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how does reducing growth and demand for food improve food security and evaluation
- meat consumption increasing in countries like china
- however in western countries, less people are eating meat and consuming more plant based
- “love food hate waste”
- large scale
- - optional and people don’t have to listen, reduces peoples choices
215
define population ecology
study of how the environment affects population factors
216
define biotic potential
number of births is controlled by the reproductive potential of a species and has evolved over time and is related to the survival rate of the species
biotic potential> environmental resistance, population will grow
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define density independent factors
not influenced by population size (natural disasters) so death rate will increase
218
define density dependent factors
influenced by population size (food supply and disease) and they will become more prevalent with increasing population
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define and features of overpopulation
too many people in an area relative to the resources available (LICs)
- pressure on resources
- low standard of living
- no increase in technology means the population will decline
- high unemployment and underemployment
- low income per capita so poverty
- outward migration
- wars, conflict
- mali has low population density but has a low resource base and therefore low standard of living
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define and features of optimum population
perfect balance between population and resources
- highest standard of living
- maximises income per capita
- working with all resources
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define and features of under population
too few people in an area to use the resources efficiently for a given level of technology (HICs)
- high income per capita
- low unemployment
- inward migration
- good standard of living
-high levels of technology
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define carrying capacity and equation
maximum population size that an area or environment can sustain indefinitely
total productive bio capacity/ total population= global hectares available per person
223
define total productive biodiversity
total biologically productive area of Earth’s systems available to provide resources for us to use
224
define ecological footprint
a measure in global hectares of how much of earths resources are used in relation to the amount of resources actually available. each person would have 1.6 gha available
225
define overshoot
point when a populations consumption of resources exceeds the long term capacity of the environment to regenerate the resources being consumed
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implications of carrying capacity and ecological footprint
- suggests there is a limit to growth
-argued that some areas have already exceeded their limits
- globally population growth is starting to slow
- s curve adjusting to carrying capacity
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features of population, resources and pollution model
- shows relationship between humans and environment
- “systems” approach whereby the acquisition of resources alters ecosystems
- the resources are used and the conversion into energy or finish products results in pollution
228
positive feedback in population
- population growth leads to more demand for food which drives an increase in food production, which increases population further and thus demand
- more extraction of fossil fuels does energy for growing population, which sustains the population more and causes it to increase
229
negative feedback in population
- growing populations leads to intensification of agriculture which leads to soil erosion, which decreases agricultural yields as the soil is less fertile so food production cannot support population
- increase population leads to increased extraction of fossil fuels, which increase greenhouse gas emissions and leads to climate change, which effects population growth
230
malthusian perspective of population
- “power of population to increase is greater than earths power to sustain it”
- population grows exponentially but food supply grows arithmetically
- when population grows beyond carrying capacity, population growth would crash called “malthusian catastrophe” as there isn’t enough resources to sustain the population
- population will decrease due to positive checks like ideas, war and famine, as well as preventative checks like one child policy
231
examples of malthusian perspective
- regular famines in Sahel
- water scarcity in middle east
- think tank club of rome in 1970s used computer models based on malthusian ideas and suggested continued population growth would lead to dramatic decline of economic growth within 100 years
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criticism of malthusian perspective
- doesn’t consider food technological advances
- doesn’t consider importation of food and delivery of aid
233
esther boserup population perspective
- “necessity is the mother of invention”
- technology could expand the carrying capacity and enable population growth to extend to upwards
- green revolution, GM crops
234
julian simon population perspective
- population growth leads to short term problems, and trigger technical improvement for better standard of living
- human mind would produce enough intelligent people to solve the probes
- standard of living has improved in most countries despite populations rising
235
prospects for global population
- by 2100, population is expected to be 10.3 billion
- global fertility as 5 in 1960, and was 2.4 in 2019 and expected to fall to 1.9 by 2100
- in more developed countries the fertility rate is below the replacement rate
- sub-saharan africa is expected to show the greatest increase
236
what factors affect global population change and projections
- life expectancy and fertility rates
-factors like war and disease may affect population but it’s hard to predict
237
population-environment relationships positives
+ stress will create innovation in technology to become more sustainable, like renewable energy
+ developed countries can share technology with developing countries
+ education can make people think about their consumption patterns and how they impact the environment, and thus change their behaviour
+ policy changes can reduce a country’s resource consumption, like promoting public transport
238
population environment relationships negatives
- cause stress on resources- resource insecurity and depletion
- role of climate change making it worse
- over population can lead to disease
239
population stats in southend
- population was 181,000 on 2011 census and 183,100 in 2019
- LE 79.1 in males and 82.1 in females
- mean age in 40.2 years
- 92% of population are white british
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economic stats in southend
- 79% employment rate but many jobs are part time (89%)
- 1/3 of population commute out of work
- 20% of children in low income households
- lack of affordable and flexible childcare adds to pressure
- 15.5% of households received some sort of benefit
241
health stats in southend
- 45% believe that have very good health
- by 2030, 40% of people at working age will have a long term health condition
- very low rates of TB (5.7/1000)
- below average with diabetes (73/1000)
- cancer above average at 147/1000 prevalence rate
- heart disease and dementia higher than national rate
- 68% of adults are obese
- 18% smoke
- drug misuse is the 3rd most common risk of death in 15-49 year olds
242
physical environment stats in southend
- rainfall is significantly lower than in the West so attracts people for retirement
- southend has the highest amount of annual sunshine in UK
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air pollution stats in southend
- approximately 100 premature deaths due to air pollution in 2015
- air pollution is bad near main roads like A127 and A13
- extra tourist traffic- 7 million visitors a year
- but coastal breezed and woodland counteract pollution do overall figure are not high
244
infrastructure in southend
- less than one car per household
- 9 train stations, cycle lanes, buses
- flats are small due to high property prices
- house prices are 11x higher than average wage
- people commuting from London on higher wage
- 7 mile seafront- walking, cycling, running
