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LSAT 180 > Qual > Flashcards

Qual Flashcards

1
Q

True or false:

All statements are reciprocal

A

False

All Statements are not reciprocal
All statements always imply the contrapositive

This means the converse is a fallacy of All statements (it is also a fallacy of most statements)

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2
Q

Most

A

Most implies a majority (>50%) greater than half

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3
Q

True or false:

All statements always imply the contrapositive

A

True

All Statements are not reciprocal
All statements always imply the contrapositive

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4
Q

True or false:

Most statements are reciprocal

A

False

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

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5
Q

True or false:

Most statements are not reciprocal

A

True

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

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6
Q

True or false:

Most people who play Dungeons and Dragons live in their parents’ house, so you can infer that most people who live in their parents’ house play Dungeons and Dragons

A

False

False

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

DD -m-> PH
A-m-> B does not translate to B-m->A

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7
Q

Diagram most A’s are B’s

A

A -most-> B

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8
Q

Most vs The Most

A

Majority vs Plurality

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9
Q

True or false:

Most could be All

A

True

Most can be All

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10
Q

True or false:

Most cannot be All

A

False

Most can be all

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11
Q

If most A’s are B’s does it mean that there are A’s that are not B’s

A

Not necessarily,

Most statements can be more than half or even All

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12
Q

True or false:
Most people who play Dungeons and Dragons live in their parents’ house, therefore, there are some people who play DD who don’t live in their parents’ house

A

False, we cannot say this for certain
Most statements can be more than half or even All

DD-most->PB does not translate to DD -s->not Pb

A-most->B does not mean A-some-> not B

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13
Q

True or false:

Some statements are reciprocal

A

True
Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive
Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

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14
Q

True or false:

If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s

A

True
Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive
Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

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15
Q

True or false:
Some of the people are going.
Therefore, all the people might be going.

A

True

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

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16
Q

Easy way of remembering what some translates to

A

At least one

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

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17
Q

True or false.

Some A are B’s, therefore, there are some A’s that are not B’s

A

False. The statement is invalid.

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

A-some-B cannot be understood to be A-some-not B

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

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18
Q

True or false:
All A’s are B’s, and some B’s are C’s.
Therefore, Some A’s are C’s

A 
False
A->B
B-some-C
-------------
A-some-C

Invalid^
.
.

A->B
A-some-C
————-
B-some-C

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.

In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

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19
Q

All A’s are B’s, and some A’s are C’s.

Therefore, some B’s are C’s

A

True

A->B
A-some-C
————-
B-some-C

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

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20
Q

All A’s are B’s and some C’s are A’s.

Therefore, some C’s are B’s

A

True

A->B
A-some-C (reversible)
————-
B-some-C (reversible)

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

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21
Q

True or false:
All circus performers have extraordinary talents.
Some people with extraordinary talents can swallow swords. Therefore, some circus performers can swallow swords.

A

False

Circus performer -> Extraordinary Talent
Extraordinary Talent -some-> Swallow Swords
——————
Circus Performer -some-> Swallow Swords
.
^Invalid!
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
-
The shared term in the argument above is the necessary of the All statement. It has to be the sufficient, the all “blanks”

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22
Q

True or false:
All circus performers have extraordinary talents.
Some people who can swallow swords perform in the circus. Therefore, some people with extraordinary talents can swallow swords

A

true. the statement is valid

A->B
A-some-C (reversible)
————-
B-some-C (reversible)

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

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23
Q

To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the

A 
sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
A->B    ---this A
A-some-C  (reversible)
-------------
B-some-C   (reversible)
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24
Q

True or false:
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the necessary condition of the all statement.

A

False

it is the sufficient assumption that must appear in both statements to produce a some

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
.
.
.
A->B
A-some-C  (reversible)
-------------
B-some-C   (reversible)

^Valid
.

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25
Q

Most A’s are B’s

All B’s are C’s

A 
A-m->B
B  -> C
-----------
A -most-> C
When the Sufficient condition of the All statement is the Necessary of the Most statement, then you can infer a Most
Start with sufficient from Most
.
.
A-m-> B
A -> C
----------
B -some- C
When the sufficient of the All statement matches with the sufficient of the Most statement, then you can infer a Some
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26
Q

All A’s are C’s

Most A’s are B’s

A 
A -> C
A-m->B
------------
C -some-B
.
When the sufficient of the All statement matches with the sufficient of the Most statement, then you can infer a Some
.
.
.
A-m->B
B  -> C
-----------
A -most-> C
When the Sufficient condition of the All statement is the Necessary of the Most statement, then you can infer a Most
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27
Q 
True or false
All A's are B's
Most B's are C's 
---------------
Most A's are C's
A

false

No valid conclusion can be made from this

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28
Q

In order to make any inference from an All and a Most statement,

A

The shared condition MUST be on the Sufficient of the All

if it is shared with the Necessary of the Most = Most
with Sufficient of Most = Some

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29
Q

To make a deduction from two most sections..

A

The two sufficient conditions - the thing before the arrow - must be the same. Then draw a some between the two different remaining conditions

A-most->B
A-most->C
————-
B-some-C

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30
Q

Most 1’s are 2’s

All 2’s are 3’s

A

Most 1’s are 2’s
All 2’s are 3’s
——–
Most 1’s are 3’s

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31
Q

F –> C
+
C (xIx) D

A 
Valid Inference 
F --> C
C (xIx) D
-----------
F --> C  D
========
 F (xIx) D

This is a valid inference

.
.
.
.

Compare that with 
D --> G
\+
C (xIx) D
---------
C (xIx) D --> G
Not a valid inference
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32
Q

D –> G
+
C (xIx) D

A

Can’t produce a double arrow unless matching end is on the necessary

D --> G
\+
C (xIx) D
---------
C (xIx) D --> G
Not a valid inference

-only valid conclusion you can get is that “some G’s are not C’s”

Compare with
.

Valid Inference 
F --> C
C (xIx) D
-----------
F --> C (xIx) D
========
 F (xIx) D
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33
Q

A -> B

B -some- C

A

Cant get valid inference

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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34
Q

A -> B

A -some- C

A

Valid inference

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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35
Q

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the BLANK condition of the All Must be found in the Some

A

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the SUFFICIENT condition of the All Must be found in the Some

Valid inference

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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36
Q

All A’s are B’s
Some A’s are C’s
Therefore, some B’s are C’s

A

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the SUFFICIENT condition of the All Must be found in the Some

Valid inference

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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37
Q

All A’s are B’s
Some B’s are C’s
Therefore, some A’s are C’s

A

False - Invalid

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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38
Q

All C’s are E’s

Some E’s are T’s

A

No valid conclusion

Invalid

Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All to produce a some

A -> B
A -some- C
———–
B -some- C

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39
Q

Most N’s are D’s

All D’s are J’s

A

Therefore, most N’s are J’s

N-most-D
D -> J
———-
N -most-J

Valid

40
Q

D -> E
E -most- C
———
D -most-C

A

False

41
Q

SC -most- V
V -most- U
———-
SC-most-U

A

False

There is only one deduction that can be drawn by two most statements

SC -most- V
SC -most- U
————
V -some- U

42
Q

SC -most- V
SC -most- U
————
V -some- U

A

Valid

There is only one deduction that can be drawn by two most statements

SC -most- V
SC -most- U
————
V -some- U

-
-
A -most- B
A -most- C
----------
B -some- C
43
Q

All A’s are are B’s

Most B’s are C’s

A

False

44
Q

Some from

A

A -> B infers B some A
A -most-> B infers B some A

A->B
All apples are fruit
some fruit are apples

45
Q

Anytime you see
~A–>B
in a group game

A

know that at least one must be present

46
Q

If a group contains i then that group contains neither j nor k

A

i (xIx) j

i (xIx) k

47
Q

contra

~g –> j and k

A

~j or ~k –> G

48
Q

inferences?

there are three groups, each group has a minimum of three members. Each member can appear in a maximum of two groups

members:
FGHIJK - 6

G –> F

i (xIx) J
i (xIx) K

~G –> J and K
to
~J or ~K –> G

A

i –> ~J + ~K –> G –> F

i –> G —> F

~F–> ~G –> J and K –> ~I
(if F is not in a given group then that group can contain neither G nor I)

at least 3 members must show up twice to reach the required 3 group size for the 3 groups

~F –> H + J + K

If F isnt in a group then H, J and K must be in the group to reach the required 3 minimum, so we know that one group is made up of these members

49
Q

Most

A

The word “most” can be defined as a majority, possibly all (just as some can be all)

most 
a majority 
more than half 
almost all 
usually 
typically
50
Q

Words introducing most

A 
most 
a majority 
more than half 
almost all 
usually 
typically

The word “most” can be defined as a majority, possibly all (just as some can be all)

51
Q

At least one heron has blue feathers.

A

H some BF (where H stands for heron and BF stands for blue feathers)

52
Q

A majority of senators are wealthy

A

S –most— > W

53
Q

Not all of the Smallville roads are safe.

A

SR some ~S

where SR stands for Smallville roads and S stands for safe

54
Q

A few of the schools no longer offer business degrees.

A

S some ~ OBD

(where S stands for schools and OBD stands for offer business
degrees)

55
Q

More often than not, dinner for two is expensive.

A

D2 –most–> E

where D2 stands for dinner for two and E stands for expensive

56
Q

Most of the time playing the stock market is not profitable.

A

PSM –most–> ~P

(where PSM stands for playing the stock market and P stands for
profitable)

57
Q

Some are not

A

aka not all

0-99

58
Q

All
Most
Some
None

in numbers

A

All = 100

Most = 51 to 100 (“a majority”)

Some are not = 0 to 99 (also “Not All”)

Most are not = 0 to 49

Some = 1 to 100 (“at least one”)

None = 0

59
Q

some A’s are not B’s

A

A some ~B

reversed is
“Some things that are not B are A’s.”

60
Q

Reverse

A some ~B

A

A some ~B

reversed is
“Some things that are not B are A’s.”

61
Q

Eight books are assigned to three students.

Each student is assigned at least two books.

A

4-2-2

3-3-2

62
Q

If a must be true question has answer choices of blank happens “or” blank happens what do you do

A

Show that one or the other or both must occur

If or appears on a could be true show that one or the other could occur

If it appears on a must be false show that neither one can occur

63
Q

Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported question gives you, …….

A

Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported (Soft Must Be True) question gives you, only one will have any support at all. The other four will be utterly unsupported.

the right question to ask is “Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever.”

...most strongly support... 
...most support... 
...most logically completes... 
...most strongly supported... 
...best support... 
...most logically completes... 
...grounds for accepting... 
...conforms most closely to the principle...
64
Q

For what kinds of questions can you ask yourself

“Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever.”

A

Soft Must Be True

Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported (Soft Must Be True) question gives you, only one will have any support at all. The other four will be utterly unsupported.

the right question to ask is “Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever.”

...most strongly support... 
...most support... 
...most logically completes... 
...most strongly supported... 
...best support... 
...most logically completes... 
...grounds for accepting... 
...conforms most closely to the principle...
65
Q

Soft Must Be True Question Stems

A 
...most strongly support... 
...most support... 
...most logically completes... 
...most strongly supported... 
...best support... 
...most logically completes... 
...grounds for accepting... 
...conforms most closely to the principle...
66
Q

If asked for an “Inference”

A

It is a Must Be True Question

An Inference is defined as something that must be true

List of Must Be True question Stems

...can be properly inferred...
...can be inferred...
...commit him/her to...
...inference that can be properly drawn...
...logically follows...
...according to the principle stated above...
...must also be true...
...can be properly concluded...
...must on the basis of them be true...
...must also be true...
...must also have been shown...
...logically follows...
67
Q

Justify Formula

A

Premises + Answer Choice = Conclusion

The Justify Formula is a useful tool for understanding how Justify the Conclusion questions work. If the answer choice is incorrect, the application of the Justify Formula will fail to produce the given conclusion.

68
Q

Premises + Answer Choice = Conclusion

A

Justify Formula

The Justify Formula is a useful tool for understanding how Justify the Conclusion questions work. If the answer choice is incorrect, the application of the Justify Formula will fail to produce the given conclusion.

69
Q

Take for ganted

A

the author does believe the following without justification.

70
Q

The two types of answers that will always be correct

in a Must Be True question.

A
  1. Paraphrased Answers

Paraphrased Answers are answers that restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms. Because the language is not exactly the same as in the stimulus, Paraphrased Answers can be easy to miss. Paraphrased Answers are designed to test your ability to discern the author’s exact
meaning. Sometimes the answer can appear to be almost too obvious since it is drawn directly from the stimulus.

  1. Answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statements
    (Combination Answers)
    Any answer choice that would result from combining two or more statements in the stimulus will be correct.

Should you encounter either of the above as answer choices in a Must Be True question, go ahead and select the answer with confidence.

71
Q

Incorrect answer types for Must Be True questions

A

Could Be True answers are attractive because they can possibly occur, but they are incorrect because they do not have to be true.

Exaggerated answers take information from the stimulus and then stretch that information to make a broader statement that is not supported by the
stimulus.

New Information answers include information not explicitly mentioned in the stimulus. Be careful with these answers: first examine the scope of the stimulus to make sure the “new” information does not fall under the
umbrella of a term or concept in the stimulus. Second, examine the answer to make sure it is not the consequence of combining stimulus elements.

The Shell Game occurs when an idea or concept is raised in the stimulus, and then a very similar idea appears in the answer choice, but the idea is changed just enough to be incorrect but still attractive.

The Opposite answer is completely opposite of the facts of the stimulus.

The Reverse answer is attractive because it contains familiar elements from the stimulus, but the
reversed statement is incorrect because it rearranges those elements to create a new, unsupported
statement. - sometimes through the reversal of logic

72
Q

only and its use in sufficient and necessary conditions

A

Only

  • is necessary
  • “only zombies eat brains” – eat brains > zombies

Only If

  • is necessary
  • I will be a lawyer only if I go to law school
  • lawyer > law school

EXCEPTION
THE ONLY - sufficient
the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros
underwear outside pants > Superhero

73
Q

Diagram

the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros

A

Only

  • is necessary
  • “only zombies eat brains” – eat brains > zombies

Only If

  • is necessary
  • I will be a lawyer only if I go to law school
  • lawyer > law school

EXCEPTION
THE ONLY - sufficient
the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros
underwear outside pants > Superhero

74
Q

What is this

Neither darts nor table tennis are playable underwater

A

a conjunction (AND)

cant do this and cant do that

neither nor means you cant have either

75
Q

What is this

A or B

A

an inclusive disjunction

A or B means A, B, or A + B
essentially, at least one, possibly both

76
Q

Not A or not B

A

Not both - called an Exclusive Disjunction

A, B, or neither

77
Q

Not both

A

Not A or not B

Not both - called an Exclusive Disjunction

A, B, or neither

It is the negation of an inclusive disjunct

78
Q

Contrapositive

NC > V or T

A

~ T and ~ V > ~ NC

If no T and no V then no NC

79
Q

Modality

A

the degree of necessity expressed by a proposition

how sure that something is going to happen

STRONG - when things are 100%
necessity, must, always, is

MODERATE - likely going to happen
probably, likely, usually

WEAK - possibility
May, might, could, can, occasionally

Conclusions can only be supported by premises of equal or greater strength

80
Q

Three different Primary Structures in reading passages

A

1) Thesis - One primary point of view (no disagreement)
2) Antithesis - Two primary points of view (two conflicting)
3) Synthesis - Three primary points of view (two conflicting - one of resolution)

81
Q

All

A

equivalent to a sufficient condition, ie if you are

82
Q

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure

Main point answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

A

Antithesis

Absent author
Look for answers that best encompass both points of view

Present author
Look for answer choices that best capture the authors point of view

83
Q

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure

Purpose answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

A

Absent author: Look for answer choices that best describe the way in which the views relate to eachother as presented by a neutral third party (explain debate, describe controversy, present two opposing viewpoints)

Present author: Look for answer choices that best describe the author’s position relative to the two views presented

84
Q

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure

Author’s Attitude answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

A

Absent Author: Look for neutral authors (objective/impartial)

Present Author: Look for answer choices that align with the author’s opinion on either thesis

85
Q

Antithesis Reading Passage Structure

A

The antithesis structure is characterized by the presence of two main perspectives on the subject matter. These two viewpoints tend to disagree.

The author may either agree or disagree (present author) or simply stay neutral/have no opinion (absent author)

86
Q

If the author’s view is present in a reading passage…

A

their opinion/view is the main point

87
Q

Failure of exclusivity

A
  1. An argument that will fail to establish the list of options is exhaustive (that no other option is available) or an argument will fail to sufficiently eliminate some of the options
  2. An argument will falsely assume that two options are exclusive (that it cannot be a combination of both)
88
Q

Sampling Fallacies

A

When an argument relies on a poll to justify its conclusion, there must be nothing wrong with the evidence

1) The sample group must be an accurate representation of the group it purports to represent
2) Those surveyed must understand the survey and not have any motive to misrepresent themselves
3) Any conclusion made from the survey must be intelligibly related to the questions asked in the survey

89
Q

What two types of equivocation appear on the LSAT

- esp flaw

A
  1. Shift in meaning
    If the meanings of any key words shift in meaning during the course of an argument, the argument may be invalid
  2. Related but Distinct Concepts
    Arguments on the LSAT can equivocate between two related yet distinct concepts. It is a fallacy to treat these concepts as though they are the same
90
Q

What flaw?

Sam is at best able to write articles of average quality. The most compelling evidence for this are those few of the numerous articles submitted by Sam that are superior., since he is incapable of writing an article that is better than average, must obviously have plagiarized superior ones.

A

Circular Reasoning - when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises

answer:
It presupposes what it seeks to establish

91
Q

when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises

A

Circular Reasoning

92
Q

Circular Reasoning

A

when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises

93
Q

Temporal Fallacy

A

The attempt to draw a definitive conclusion about one time (past, present or future) from premises about another time period

Steve is always on time, so he’ll make it on time today

94
Q

Answer for a Parallel Question

A

Correct answer characteristics:
Same logical structure (same # of premises, same # of terms, same validity status, and a conclusion with the same modality, quantifier, and logical structure)

Common incorrect answers:
Arguments in which the subject matter is the same or similar to the stimulus
Arguments in which the scope, modality or quantifiers differ from the stimulus

95
Q

If you cant diagram an argument, what do you do in the case of Parallel questions

A

give it a motto

96
Q

Difference between Parallel Reasoning and Parallel the flaw questions

A

In parallel reasoning question nearly everything has to match

in parallel flaw questions, however, only the particular type of fallacy must match

LSAT 180 (10 decks)

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