Relationships

Question 1

Theories of formation, maintenance and breakdown

Intro for formation

Answer 1

Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love: Intimacy, commitment and passion have to be present for consummate love - if one is lacking this could lead to dissatisfaction; hence why the correct formation of a lasting relationship is so important
Matching Hypothesis, Walster (1996)
Reward/ Need Satisfaction Theory (Byrne and
Clore, 1970)

Question 2

Theories of formation, maintenance and breakdown

What are the two factors for the formation of relationships

Answer 2

Matching hypothesis, Walster (1996)

Reward/Need Satisfaction Theory, Byrne and Clore(1970)

Question 3

Theories of formation

AO1 point for the matching hypothesis, Walster 1996, and the two AO2 points that come with it

Answer 3

AO1 - Matching hypothesis, Walster, 1996 claims:

1. The more socially desirable a person is, the more desirable they expect their partner to be.
2. Couples who are matched are more likely to have happy, enduring relationships than couples who are mismatched in terms of social desirability

AO2 - Data support = Murstein (1972) provides correlational data which gives evidence for the matching effect in real couples. Therefore weakening the argument of the RNST.
AO2 - Reductionism = Has been criticised for its simplistic approach which fails to take in to account external influences and individual differences.

Question 4

Theories of formation

What is my AO1 point for the matching hypothesis - what 2 fundamental things does it claim?

Answer 4

1. The more socially desirable a person is, the more socially desirable they expect their partner to be
2. Couples who are matched are more likely to have happy, enduring relationships than couples who are mismatched in terms of social desirability

Question 5

Theories of formation

What AO2 supports the two main principles of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 5

AO2 - Data support = Murstein (1972) provides correlational data which gives evidence for the matching effect in real couples. Therefore weakening the argument of the RNST.
AO2 - Reductionism = Has been criticised for its simplistic approach which fails to take in to account external influences and individual differences.

Question 6

Theories of formation

What are my 4 AO1 point in brief for the RNST Theory, Byrne and Clore, 1970

Answer 6

1. Based on the notion that a key reason for forming relationships is for the rewards or reinforcements we receive
2. Byrne, 1971, says we can be conditioned to love classically and operantly
3. Rewards and punishments
4. Attraction through associations (classical)

Question 7

Theories of formation

Explain the first point about the RNST, its key reasoning, combining it with AO2

Answer 7

AO1 - based on the notion that the key for forming relationships is for the rewards or reinforcements we receive. E.g. Reward being approval of others - Need being self-esteem
AO2 - Limitations in its real life application (RLA) as it is only relevant in the early stages - however arguable has some benefits to understanding successful relationships
AO2 - Weakness of model is that is only focusses on receiving rewards, whereas Hays 1985 found that we gain satisfaction from giving as well as receiving.

Question 8

Theories of formation

What did Hays 1985 say about the key reason for relationships as claimed by RNST?

Answer 8

He claims that we gain satisfaction from giving as well as receiving - criticism/weakness of model is its unilateral focus on receiving

Question 9

Theories of formation

Describe the Second point on the RNST, classical and operant conditioning, using AO2 to back it up

Answer 9

AO1 - Byrne (1971) said we are conditioned to love classically: associate them with pleasant rewards
operantly: (consequences) we spend more time with those who provide us with rewards, and less time with those who punish us.
AO2 - Conditioning has been used in the past in relation to other behaviours and is a respected theory - behavioural approach applied
AO2 - however, it fails to explain the differences in cultural approaches, individualist vs. collectivist: Loft 1994, suggests women are more focussed on the needs of others rather than receiving in many cultures - making it not a universal explanation: based on culturally biased information

Question 10

Theories of formation

Who said we are conditioned to love classically and operantly?

Answer 10

Byrne (1971)

Question 11

Theories of formation

Who provides the cultural argument that women are more concerned for the needs of others than their own in many cultures?

Answer 11

Loft (1994)

Question 12

Theories of formation

Describe point 3 on the RNST about punishment and rewards and back it up with AO2

Answer 12

AO1 - according to the principles of operant conditioning we are likely to repeat any behaviour leading to a desirable outcome. Therefore suggesting we enter relationships because the presence of some individuals is directly associated with reinforcement - making them more attractive to us
AO2 - Reinforcement is not important in parent-child relationships - why romantic ones?
AO2 - IDA - Evolutionary approach, Aron et al 2005, brain reward system associated with romantic love probably evolved to drive our ancestors to focus their courtship energy on specific individuals: love at first sight = way to speed up mating process

Question 13

Theories of formation

What AO2 backs up Byrne’s 1971 point that we are conditioned to love classically and operantly?

Answer 13

AO2 - Conditioning has been used in the past in relation to other behaviours and is a respected theory - behavioural approach applied
AO2 - however, it fails to explain the differences in cultural approaches, individualist vs. collectivist: Loft 1994, suggests women are more focussed on the needs of others rather than receiving in many cultures - making it not a universal explanation: based on culturally biased information

Question 14

Theories of formation

The IDA for rewards and punishments of the RNST was said by who? (love at first sight = evolutionary)

Answer 14

Aron, 2005

Question 15

Theories of formation

Explain point 4 about the RNST, attractions through association

Answer 15

AO1 - Attractions through association (classical) if we meet someone when we are happy then we are much more inclined to like them.
AO2 - Context is vital
AO2 - Research support - Veicht and Griffit (1976)
> Single pps waited in an experimenters office
> Radio playing = good or bad news broadcast
> Experimenter returned - participants completed ‘feelings scale’
> Good news condition = reported more positive feelings
- Robbie and Horrowitz supported this: reported strangers expressed a greater liking of each other after winning a game
AO2 - Duck criticised Veicht and Griffit for the artificial rating of a hypothetical other:
AO2 - As with most of these studies, their lacking ecological validity means they also lack mundane realism. however, Caspi and Herebener (1990) carried out studies on real life couples and have tended to support these claims

Question 16

Theories of formation

Explain Key research point

Answer 16

AO2 - Research support - Veicht and Griffit (1976)
> Single pps waited in an experimenters office
> Radio playing = good or bad news broadcast
> Experimenter returned - participants completed ‘feelings scale’
> Good news condition = reported more positive feelings
- Robbie and Horrowitz supported this: reported strangers expressed a greater liking of each other after winning a game
AO2 - Duck criticised Veicht and Griffit for the artificial rating of a hypothetical other:
AO2 - As with most of these studies, their lacking ecological validity means they also lack mundane realism. however, Caspi and Herebener (1990) carried out studies on real life couples and have tended to support these claims

Question 17

Theories of formation, maintenance and breakdown

Main point from each essay for a combined question

Answer 17

Formation
AO1 - Attractions through association (classical) if we meet someone when we are happy then we are much more inclined to like them.
AO2 - Context is vital
AO2 - Research support - Veicht and Griffit (1976)
> Single pps waited in an experimenters office
> Radio playing = good or bad news broadcast
> Experimenter returned - participants completed ‘feelings scale’
> Good news condition = reported more positive feelings
- Robbie and Horrowitz supported this: reported strangers expressed a greater liking of each other after winning a game
AO2 - Duck criticised Veicht and Griffit for the artificial rating of a hypothetical other:
AO2 - As with most of these studies, their lacking ecological validity means they also lack mundane realism. however, Caspi and Herebener (1990) carried out studies on real life couples and have tended to support these claims

Question 18

Theories of maintenance

Introduction

Answer 18

Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of love suggests that you have to keep a balance of commitment, intimacy and passion in order to maintain a loving relationship
- Social Exchange Theory, Thiabut and Kelley (1959)

Question 19

Theories of maintenance

Name the main theory and who it is by

Answer 19

Social Exchange Theory, Thiabut and Kelley 1959

Question 20

Theories of maintenance

Name the 3 AO1 points

Answer 20

1. Profit and loss
2. Comparison level
3. Process is ‘key to economic theories’

Question 21

Theories of maintenance

Describe the AO1 for Profit and loss (S.E.T)

Answer 21

AO1- Profit and loss
> Everyone tries to maximise rewards (e.g. affection, attention) and minimise costs (time and effort)
> We focus on the Costs-Reward ratio (C+R)
> Social exchange = ‘economic’ theory of human behaviour; stresses that commitment to a relationship is dependent on the profitability of its outcome
> Sampling -> bargaining -> Commitment -> Institutionalisation

Question 22

Theories of maintenance

What is the ‘process’ of S.E.T?

Answer 22

Sampling
Bargaining
Commitment
Institutionalisation

Question 23

Theories of maintenance

Describe the AO2 to combine with ‘Profit and Loss’ of the S.E.T

Answer 23

AO2 - abusive relationships -> notion of exchange had been used to explain why some people stay
- Rusbult and Martz (1955) - when investments were high (e.g. children) and alternatives were low (nowhere else to live) still could be considered a profit = stay in abusive relationship
AO2 - Limitations -> criticised for selfish nature and focussing too much on the individual’s perspective and ignore social aspects e.g. how partners communicate or interpret events

Question 24

Theories of maintenance

Describe point 1 for the Social Exchange theory, AO1 and AO2

Answer 24

AO1- Profit and loss
> Everyone tries to maximise rewards (e.g. affection, attention) and minimise costs (time and effort)
> We focus on the Costs-Reward ratio (C+R)
> Social exchange = ‘economic’ theory of human behaviour; stresses that commitment to a relationship is dependent on the profitability of its outcome
> Sampling -> bargaining -> Commitment -> Institutionalisation
AO2 - abusive relationships -> notion of exchange had been used to explain why some people stay
- Rusbult and Martz (1955) - when investments were high (e.g. children) and alternatives were low (nowhere else to live) still could be considered a profit = stay in abusive relationship
AO2 - Limitations -> criticised for selfish nature and focussing too much on the individual’s perspective and ignore social aspects e.g. how partners communicate or interpret events

Question 25

Theories of maintenance

Describe the 2nd point about the Social Exchange theory, combining AO1 and AO2

Answer 25

AO1 - Comparison level:
Support for maintenance theories can be found by looking at how people deal with alternatives
> Current expectations are affected by previous relationships - thus providing a comparison level (CL)
> If profit of current relationship exceeds of CL it is judged as worthwhile - we are satisfied with partner.
> Also depends on satisfaction/potential rewards and costs available in an alternative relationship (CLalt) - a new relationship can replace an old one if its profit level is significantly higher.
AO2 - Simpson et al (1990) asked pps to rate members of the opposite sex in terms of attractiveness- those in relationships gave lower scores
AO2 - However, SET does not explain why people why some people leave relationships despite having no alternative, nor does it suggest how great the disparity in CL has to be for it to become dissatisfactory.

Question 26

Theories of maintenance

Explain the AO1 of Comparison level of SET

Answer 26

AO1 - Comparison level:
Support for maintenance theories can be found by looking at how people deal with alternatives
> Current expectations are affected by previous relationships - thus providing a comparison level (CL)
> If profit of current relationship exceeds of CL it is judged as worthwhile - we are satisfied with partner.
> Also depends on satisfaction/potential rewards and costs available in an alternative relationship (CLalt) - a new relationship can replace an old one if its profit level is significantly higher.

Question 27

Theories of maintenance

Explain the AO2 for Comparison level of SET

Answer 27

AO2 - Simpson et al (1990) asked pps to rate members of the opposite sex in terms of attractiveness- those in relationships gave lower scores
AO2 - However, SET does not explain why people why some people leave relationships despite having no alternative, nor does it suggest how great the disparity in CL has to be for it to become dissatisfactory.

Question 28

Theories of maintenance

Explain point 3 for SET, AO1 and AO2 combined

Answer 28

AO1 - Process is key to any economic theory of human behaviour
Sampling - bargaining - commitment - institutionalisation
> Therefore exploring the fact that C+R must be explored, negotiated and stabilised before r/ship can become institutionalised/maintained
AO2 - Cultural bias and equity exchange - Moghaddam (1998) suggests it only applies to younger people of Western cultures in short term relationships–> little time to develop long term commitment means that it makes sense to be concerned with give and take
- AO2 long term r/ships within other, less mobile, population groups, particularly in non-traditional societies are more likely to value security than profit.
RLA - relationship theory: Gottman and Lecenson (1992) found that a successful marriage has a positive to negative exchange rate of 5:1 - Primary goal of therapies = increase positive exchanges -> therefore increasing reward/profit

Question 29

Theories of maintenance

AO1 for point 3 of SET, process is key

Answer 29

AO1 - Process is key to any economic theory of human behaviour
Sampling - bargaining - commitment - institutionalisation
> Therefore exploring the fact that C+R must be explored, negotiated and stabilised before r/ship can become institutionalised/maintained

Question 30

Theories of maintenance

AO2 for point 3 of SET, process is key

Answer 30

AO2 - Cultural bias and equity exchange - Moghaddam (1998) suggests it only applies to younger people of Western cultures in short term relationships–> little time to develop long term commitment means that it makes sense to be concerned with give and take
- AO2 long term r/ships within other, less mobile, population groups, particularly in non-traditional societies are more likely to value security than profit.
RLA - relationship theory: Gottman and Lecenson (1992) found that a successful marriage has a positive to negative exchange rate of 5:1 - Primary goal of therapies = increase positive exchanges -> therefore increasing reward/profit

Question 31

Theories of Formation, Maintenance and Breakdown

Formation essay plan, in brief

Answer 31

Intro: Sternberg, Matching hypothesis (Walster (1996), The Reward Need Satisfaction Hypothesis (Byrne and Clore (1970)
1
AO1 –> 2 principles of matching hypothesis
AO2 –> Murstein (1992) -> reductionist
2
AO1 –> Principles of RNST: examples of Reward/Need
AO2 –> RLA (+its limitations) -> Weakness (Hays 1985)
3
AO1 –> Byrne (1971)=conditioned to love (classic/operant)
AO2 –> IDA -> Individualist vs. Collectivist + gender (Loft, 1994)
4
AO1 –> Rewards and Punishments: reinforcement
AO2 –> Parent-child r/ships -> evolutionary approach (Aron, 2005)
5
AO1 –> Attraction through association (classical
AO2 –> context = vital -> r/search (Veicht and Griffit) further supported by Robbie and Horrowitz (game) -> criticised by Duck (artificial) -> lacking ecological validity = common problem (lab studies) however, Caspi and Herbener (1990) = RLA support

Question 32

Theories of Formation, Maintenance and Breakdown

Maintenance essay plan, in brief

Answer 32

Intro - Sternberg -> Social Exchange Theory (SET) Thaibut and Kelley (1996)
1
AO1 –> Profit and loss -> C+R ratio -> ‘economic’ theory of human behaviour
AO2 –> Abusive relationship (Rusbult and Martz, 1955 -investments vs. alternatives) -> limitations of selfish nature: ignoring social aspects e.g. communication
2
AO1 –> Comparison Level (CL) -> Influence of past r/ships -> profit of current r/ship must exceed CL and CLalt
AO2 –> Simpson et al 1990 supportive research -> fails to explain leaving fro no alternative and disparity in CL that indicates unsatisfactory
3
AO1 –> Process = key to economic theories -> sampling -> bargaining -> commitment -> institutionalisation
AO2 –> Cultural bias + equity exchange -> Moghaddam (1998) -> Western vs. Non-traditionalist + short vs. long term
AO2 -> Relationship therapy - RLA - 5:1 -> Increase profit/reward

Question 33

Theories of Breakdown

Intro

Answer 33

Duck, 1999 = reasons for relationship breakdowns = lack of skills; lack of communication; maintenance difficulties
> Then went on to create a model of breakdown - Rollie and Duck, 20006

Question 34

Theories of Breakdown

AO1 point - lack of skills and stimulation (Duck 1991)

Answer 34

Lack of skills and stimulation (Duck, 1991)

• lacking interpersonal skills to make them mutually satisfying
• according to Social Exchange Theory - people look for rewards in relationships, one being stimulation

Question 35

Theories of Breakdown

AO2 to support AO1 Lack of skills and stimulation (Duck, 1991)

• lacking interpersonal skills to make them mutually satisfying
• according to Social Exchange Theory - people look for rewards in relationships, one being stimulation

Answer 35

AO2 - Baxter 1994 found that the lack of stimulation was often quoted in the breaking down of a relationship -when a relationship doesn’t develop or change = sufficient justification to end relationships (or begin new ones, e.g.:…)
AO2 -Affairs (extra-marital affairs) Boekhout, et al 1999
> direct reaction to perceived lack of skills and stimulation (or maintenance difficulties in their current relationship. Participants judged a gender difference: sexual reasons for infidelity were more likely to be used by men and emotional reasons by women.

Question 36

Theories of Breakdown

Maintenance difficulties, AO1 point and AO2

Answer 36

AO1 - Long distance romantic relationships (LDRR) and long distance friendships (LDF) are very common.
> Strained because you cant see each other enough, e.g. university
AO2 - Some romantic relationships are strong enough to survive the pressures of decreased daily contact - individual differences
AO2 - Rohlfling (1995) - found that 70% of tested students had experienced at least 1 LDRR and 90% at least one LDF. Holt and Stone (1988) found that there was little decrease in relationship satisfaction as long as lovers are able to reunite regularly

Question 37

Theories of Breakdown

AO1 - Rollie and Duck’s model of breakdown, 2006

Answer 37

AO1 - Model: breakdown; Intrapsychic processes; Dyadic processes; Social processes; Grave-dressing processes; resurrection processes BIDSGR

Question 38

Theories of Breakdown

AO1 for Rollie and Duck’s Model of Breakdown, 2006
Breakdown, Intrapsychic processes, Dyadic processes, Social processes, Grave digging processes, Resurrection processes BIDSGR

Answer 38

AO2 - Research support: supported by observations of real Life break ups by Tashiro and Frazier (2003) - limited methodological limitations + high in ecological validity - pps reported they’d experienced emotional stress but also personal growth: breaking up gave them new insights into their lives and grave dressing processes helped them move on with their lives.
AO2 - Implications for intervention - RLA - stresses the importance of communication in a relationship breakdown - knowing what stage the breakdown is at provides a knowledge of the best therapy to repair it. E.g. in the later stages, different strategies of repair are inappropriate: people outside the relationship may help partners patch up their differences
AO2 - IDA - UNETHICAL - to set up a study on relationship breakdowns and there are ethical issues surrounding them.

Question 39

Theories of Breakdown

Essay plan in brief

Answer 39

Intro -> Duck, 1999 = Lack of skills and lack of stimulation; and maintenance difficulties.
Rollie and Duck’s (2006) Model of Breakdown
1
AO1 –> a) lack of skills: not mutually satisfying
b) lack of stimulation - links back to rewards of
Social Exchange Theory
AO2 –> Baxter (1994) found them to be commonly quoted during break-ups -> extra-marital affairs = Boekhut at al (1999) - direct reaction to lack of skills or stimulation -> gender differences in reasons for infidelity -> men = sexual / women = emotional
2
AO1 –> Maintenance difficulties - LDRR and LDF = very common -> strained when you cant see enough of each other e.g. university
AO2 –> Individualist as some do survive pressures pf decreased contact -> Rohlfling et al (1995) 70% of students tested = at least one LDRR and 90% = one LDF
-> Holt and Stone (1988) = little decrease in satisfaction if reunite regularly
3
AO1 –> Rollie and Duck’s Model of Breakdown (in itself an RLA) BIDSGR
AO2 –> Research support by Tashiro and Frazier (2003) - no methodological limitations and high in ecological validity -> emotional stress but personal growth
AO2 –> Implications for intervention - importance of communication -> identifying stage of breakdown = insight into best therapies to repair it –> IDA = ethical issues surrounding breakdowns.