Research methods Flashcards

Question

External validity define

Answer 1

generalisability – the extent the results can be generalised to other settings like real life

Answer 2

- Ecological (setting) -> whether results is generalisable to the real world, lack mundane realism (task is not realistic of everyday behaviour) - Populational (people) -> describes how well the sample used can be generalised to the population as a whole - Temporal (time) -> whether the findings are still valid today. It’s high when research findings successfully apply across time

Answer 3

Construct – assessment to see the degree to which a test measures what it claims to Concurrent – whether a measure is in agreement with a pre-existing measure that’s validated to test for the same concept – if your measure agrees with other measures Predictive – degree to which a test accurately predicts a criterion that’ll occur in the future Face (logical) – a superficial and subjective assessment of whether your study or test looks like it’s measures what it claims to

Answer 4

- please-U —> acts the way the researchers wants them to - screw-U —> intentionally underperform to sabotage the study’s results These effect validity

Answer 5

A Small scale versions of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation to examine the feasibility of the methodology before carrying out a larger scale study. Allows researcher to identify problems and procedure to be changed to deal with these. Allowing money and time to be saved in the long run Checks the clarity of the study

Answer 6

Single-blind procedure: a research method where the researchers don’t tell the participants if they’re being given a test or control treatment. Ensures less bias in the results and avoids demand charectaristics Double-blind procedures: neither p’s nor the experiment knows who is receiving a particular treatment. Prevents bias in research results due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect. Reduces investigator effects so can’t give unconscious Neither participants nor the experiment

Answer 7

Set a baseline whereby results from the experimental condition can be compared to results from this one. If there’s a great change in the experimental group compared to control then they can conclude the cause of effect was the IV

Answer 8

Perrin and Spencer

Answer 9

Naturalistic - observing behaviour in the setting it would usually take place Controlled - in a structured environment eg: lab Overt - p’s know they’re being watched Covert - p’s are unaware they’re being watched and recorded Participant - observer is part of the observed group Non-participant -observer does it from a distance

Answer 10

Naturalistic: Strengths -high external validity bc it’s in a natural environment Limitations -had to replicate -EV’s are high bc it’s in a natural environment Controlled: Strengths -more control over EV -easy to replicate Limits -unnatural behaviour -low mundane realism so low ecological validity -demand charectaristics

Answer 11

Overt: Strengths -ethically acceptable bc informed consent is given Limits -more likely unnatural participant behaviour as they know they’re being watched Demand characteristics - reduces validity Covert: Strengths -natural behaviour recorded - high internal validity -removes participant reactivity Limits -Ethical issues presented (no informed consent given)

Answer 12

Participants try to make sense of the situation they’re in which makes them more likely to guess the aim of the study Demand charectaristics are cues made not by the participant but by the researcher / research process

Answer 13

Participant Strength -more insightful - increases validity of findings Limits: -researcher may lose objectivity as they may identify too strongly with the participants Nonparticipant Strength: -researcher can be more objective Limit: -observer bias eg: stereotypes -researcher may lose some valuable insight

Answer 14

Observer bias When an observers reports are biased by what they expect to see Solution: inter observer reliability Having 2+ observers to compare reports and calculate a score with: Total number of agreements / total number of observations X100 If there’s a correlation higher than 0.8 / 80% then their results are reliable

Answer 15

Unstructured - continuous recordings where researcher writes everything they see during the observation Structured - researcher qualifies what they are observing with a predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods

Answer 16

Unstructured: +richer and more detailed observations recorded - produces qualitative data which is more difficult to record and analyse -greater risk of observer bias Structured: +easier, more systemic -quantitive data is collected, easier to record and analyse and compare -less risk of observer bias - less depth of richness of infomation, may miss out on valuable info

Answer 17

Behavioural categories When a target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measureable and operationalised Eg: anger - shouting, punching, swearing It’s important that the behaviours don’t overlap with other behaviours when forming berhavioural category list. Operationalised

Answer 18

Time sampling - recording behaviour within a pre-established timeframe before the observational study + reduces no. of observations to be made so less time consuming -can be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole Event sampling Counting of the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out + good for infrequent behaviours, less likely to miss behaviours -important details of behaviour may be overlooked by observer - hard to judge beginning and ending of a behaviour

Answer 19

Independent groups design - p’s only participant in one condition of the IV Repeated measures - same p’s take part in all conditions Matched pairs - pairs of p’s are matched on a confounding variable (one that affects the DV) then one member of each pair does one condition and the other does the other

Answer 20

+ No order effects + Minimises demand characteristics -No control over participant variables, between conditions -need more participants than other designs, so can be more time consuming and expensive Random allocation solves participant variables. It insures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as another, unbias

Answer 21

+Eliminate participant variables + fewer participants needed so not as time-consuming -Order effects presented, e.g. boredom tiredness So participants may not do as well in the second task/condition Counterbalancing half of the participants to conditions in one order and the other half do it in an opposite order

Answer 22

+ no order effects + minimises demand characteristics -Time-consuming, and expensive to match participants -Large pool of potential participants is needed Difficult to know which variables are appropriate to match p’s

Answer 23

Degree to which experimental study, resembles real life situations and experiences No mundane realism = lacks external validity Introduced in 1968 by Aronson and Carlsmith

Answer 24

Hints/cues made by the researcher or research method, which made it participants to guess the research is hypothesis or aim, and therefore potentially influencing their behaviour

Answer 25

Androcentric bias Eg: Asch line judgement experiment

Answer 26

Gynocentric bias

Answer 27

Ethnocentric / cultural bias Results can’t be a reliable and valid representative of all the countries

Answer 28

Collectivist and independent countries Collectivist - families in these countries are family orientated - conformity rate is higher Independent - members of the family in these countries are more orientated on themselves and their careers

Answer 29

Positive correlation – as one variable increases so does the other Negative – as one variable increases the other variable decreases Strong correlation – closest to line of best fit, more likely to predict other results Weak – less accurate prediction

Answer 30

Sample - a small group of people who represent the target population and take part in the study Population - the group of people who the sample of drawn from not all of them take part in the study

Answer 31

A complete list of all the members of the target population

Answer 32

WEIRD W – western E – educated I – industrialised R – rich D – democratic

Answer 33

In-depth study of a particular individual or small group or event, usually yielding a large amount of information. Done Over time. Carried out in real world. Idiographic Gives us insight on or opposes a whole psychological theory

Answer 34

Clinical: Brain damage can cause a change in behaviour

Answer 35

Genie Wille

Answer 36

longitudinal-> patient / individual / group can be followed over an extended period of time -> high level of validity as they go into depth and give a rich insight - allow multiple methods to be used (triangulation) = increasing validity - allows researchers to study events or complex psychological areas they could not practically or ethically manipulate -efficient because it only takes 1 case study to refute (reject) a theory - enables study of unusual behaviour found in rare cases researcher bias: researchers become too involved and lose their objectivity – misinterpreting or inflicting outcomes - lack of controls due to lots of confounding variables that can effect DV -lack scientific rigour as they’re unique they can be difficult to replicate

Answer 37

A non experimental method the researcher watches and records spontaneous / natural behaviour of participants whiteout manipulating levels of Iv

Answer 38

Hawthorne effect Behaviour changes of the participant USA,y due to demand charectaristics or investigator effects

Answer 39

Type of obersvatiom where p’s are observed ina lab Increases control and reliability but decreases ecological validity

Answer 40

Mathematical technique used to measure the Extent to which 2 covariables are assossiated with eachother

Answer 41

Type of observation where observer is hidden so p’s don’t know they’re being observed Reduces demand characteristics but raises ethical issues around consent

Answer 42

Investigation where a hypothesis is tested by manipulating the IV in order to see its effects on the DV

Answer 43

Self report technique where p’s are asked questions by an interviewer which allows for flexibility in the info gathered

Answer 44

Type of data collection where p’s behaviour is observed/watched

Answer 45

A self report technique where p’s answer pre-decided questions, in form of paper or electronically. Allows for anonymity

Answer 46

A part of a scientific report that aims to summarise the report

Answer 47

Inclination to a certain position or thought.

Answer 48

Type of question where ppts can only be answer with a limited number of answers usually ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or a scale from 1-10

Answer 49

Occurs if a test is similar to an older test that’s already has well-established validity

Answer 50

Make half of the participant sample experience the differnt conditions of the experiment in one order and the other half of the participants complete it in the opposite order

Answer 51

The quality of being able to be proven wrong

Answer 52

To Attribute info from a sample to the rest of the population

Answer 53

Unconscious changes in the investigators behaviour to comply with the hypothesis of the investigation

Answer 54

-The judgement, theory, explanation and findings based on observable phenomena -Empirical; something that’s not influenced by personal feelings or personal prejudice, so minimises bias, hence increases the internal validity and increases the credibility of psychology as a science.

Answer 55

A basic concept; a well accepted core belief

Answer 56

When previously accepted core concepts in a science are changed, usually due to the emergence of new evidence

Answer 57

Assessment of work by other people with similar levels of expertise in that field, provide unbiased expert opinion of the quality of said work, before the study is published.

Answer 58

The group represented by a sample

Answer 59

Allocate p’s to separate conditions using some sort of randomisation technique

Answer 60

Essentially repeatability and consistency; extent to which the test can be repeated and gather similar results

Answer 61

Completing a test multiple times and comparing the scores for similarity

Answer 62

Essentially truthfulness; extent to which a test measures what it aims to measure

Answer 63

A graphical representation of categorical data with numerical values

Answer 64

Type of analysis wher huge texts are simplified to certain key words that are aligned with certain themes

Answer 65

A value between -1 and 1 that indicates the relationship (correlation) between 2 data sets

Answer 66

Qualitative Quantitive Secondary Primary

Answer 67

Data which is displayed in words, is non-numerical More subjectivity +more richness of depth of detail +allows ppts to further develop their opinions hence has greater external validity. +more meaningful insight into the ppts views is achieved -difficult to analyse -difficult to make make comparisons with other data -researcher bias as conclusions rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher (interpretive bias)

Answer 68

Data disyplayed numerically, not in words More objectivity + can be analysed statistically so converted to graphs or charts + this makes it easier to compare with other data -lack of depth in detail – reductionist (complex ideas are reduced into numbers) -no meaningful insight into ppts views -as ppts aren’t able to develop their opinions the results have low external validity

Answer 69

Info is obtained first hand by the researcher for the purpose of their own investigation. It is of direct relevance to their aim and hypothesis

Answer 70

targets the exact info which the researcher needs, so the data fits their aims and objectives -replicable (check for reliability of results) -taken directly from the population (generalisability) -requires time and effort as you run the study to get the data -can be expensive as you need a big sample for generalisability - researcher bias bc you designed the study and collected the data

Answer 71

Data that pre-exists and was collected for another prupsoe by the researcher for their own investigation. Aka ‘Desk research’ Eg: government statistics Newspapers Websites Consortia / consortium (singular)

Answer 72

data is accessible so requires minimal effort to collect – not time consuming -large samples may exist eg: gov data -data may not fit what the researcher wants to find out -may be of poor quality – outdated or incomplete -data may not be reliable – the researcher was not there when the study was conducted so is likely to be unsure of the validity of the results

Answer 73

Ratio - has name, order, equal distance between each measurement (equal intervals) and measured from zero Interval - has name, order, interval Ordinal - has name and order Nominal - has name

Answer 74

when a researcher combines results from many different studies on a particular topic and uses all the data to form an overall view of the subject they’re investigating Quantitive review of results proving an effect size

Answer 75

Strengths: -More generalisability as a larger amount of data is studied -researcher is able to view the evidence with more confidence as there’s a lot of it Limit: -publication bias eg: file drawer problem may be presented. This is when researcher intentionally does not publish all the data from the relevant studies but chooses to leave out negative results. Gives false representation of what the researcher was investigating

Answer 76

Descriptive statistics: Measure of central tendency, dispersion, graphs and charts Inference statistics: stats tests

Answer 77

A way of how researchers identify trends and analyse the raw data of their study to accept or reject their hypothesis, using tables, graphs, summary statistics you need central tendency and dispersion and graphs

Answer 78

A types of data to conclude the research of a study Including Statistival tests which allow the research to accept or reject their hypothesis

Answer 79

Summary statistics that represent the centre point or typical value of a dataset Quantitive data so can compare between with other studies or between 2 groups on the study

Answer 80

Mathematical average of a set of scores Interval and ratio because it needs equal distances between each interval to create a scale and an absolute zero - The most sensitive type as it takes into account all the data = more representative of the scores of all ppts - Easily distorted by anomalous data

Answer 81

The middle score in the data set Arrange scores from lowest to highest and find middle value Ordinal data - data has an order - Less affected by extreme scores - Doesn’t take into account of all ppts scores and so not representative

Answer 82

Value that occurs the most frequently in a data set Used with nominal data Bimodal - When there’s 2 values that are most common Identify the value that’s most common If there’s 2 values that are most common this is the bimodal - Only average to use when the data is normal - Easy to calculate - Very basic method and isn’t always representative of the data - When the data is bimodal or there’s no mode it has limited usefulness

Answer 83

the spread of data around a central value Range and standard deviation

Answer 84

Differnce between your highest and lowest values Take lowest value from highest value and adding 1 Adding 1 enables the data to be rounding up or down to account for any margin error - Quick and easy to calculate - Doesn’t take the central values of a data set into account, and so it can be skewed by extremely high or low values

Answer 85

A single value that tells us how far scores deviate (move away) from the mean The larger the SD = the greater the dispersion (spread of data within a data set) = not all ppts were affected by the IV Low SD is better as it means the data are tightly clustered around the mean suggesting ppts responded in a similar way and the results are more reliable Strengths: More precise measure than the range as it include all values As it takes central values into account by using the mean -limit: difficult to calculate and affected by extreme values

Answer 86

There will be no difference in [operationalised DV] between [comdition 1] compared to [condition 2]

Answer 87

There will be a difference in [operationalised DV] between [comdition 1] compared to [condition 2]

Answer 88

Participants who [condition 1] will get higher/lower [operationalalised DV] compared to participants who [condition 2]

Answer 89

When previous published scientific research allows them to predict the direction of the results Opinions, newspaper articles and inconsistent research aren’t enough so use non-directional then

Answer 90

Symmetrical pattern of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped curve. It is the predicted distribution when considering an equally likely set of results. All in the exact point (in the middle) The dispersion of scores either side of the mid-point is experessed in SD’s In one standard deviation of the mean – 68% How uncommon your data is the more standard deviations you have

Answer 91

where most of the distribution of data is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right. When you only have the data the rule is the median and mean are higher than the mode Eg: test scores average is more lower values than higher values Mean value is higher than mode value

Answer 92

Most of the data is concentrated on the right, resulting in the long tail of anomalous scores on the left. mean is pulled to the left this time (due to the lower scorers who are in the minority), with the mode dissecting the highest peak and the median in the middle. When you only have the data the rule is the median and mean is lower than the mode

Answer 93

A spread of distribution that’s not symmetrical, instead the data all clusters to one end mode - always the highest point, mean - always the furthest average from the mode median - always the middle

Answer 94

Ethics are concerned with what is right and wrong. Ethical issues arise in research if there’s conflicting values between the researcher and the participants.

Answer 95

1)All research starts with a research proposal which is submitted to the Ethics Panel at a University. 2) They decide whether or not to grant permission for research to take place. 3) They have to use the guidelines from the BPS (British Psychological Society) in the UK and APA (American Psychological Association) in the USA. 4) They will do a cost v benefit analysis.

Answer 96

Can Do Cant Do With Participants Informed: - Consent - Deception - Confidentiality - Debrief Right to: - Withdraw - Protection from harm

Answer 97

Participants awareness of what they’re needed to do as part of the study to give valid consent.this means revealing the true aims of the study when appropriate. Written consent - ppts sign a consent form after reading an info sheet containing all the info they need to make an informed condition. Parental consent - needed if study involves children 16 years old or younger. Next of kin will need to give consent for people without mental capacity. Presumptive consent – used if consent is difficult to obtain, asl a group of people from the same target population as the sample would agree to take part, if they say yes then researcher can presume the sample would. Retrospective (differed) consent – if consent isn’t gained before the study. Ppts give consent for their data to be used in the research after they’ve taken part and have been debriefed on the true nature of the research

Answer 98

Even if given consent, ppts have right to leave the experiment at any time. Ppts must be made aware of this when signing the consent form. When questionnaires are anonymous, ppts can only withdraw until they submit their answers

Answer 99

Deception – deliberately misleading or withholding info Deceiveing ppts must be kept to a minimum. It’s only allowed if telling the truth will effect the DV (results) Using mild deception reduces demand characteristics and increases interval validity. Eg of deception: confederates Deliberately providing false information is not acceptable. ppts must be informed in the debrief at the end of the study

Answer 100

-telling ppt about the experiment -giving them the option of withdrawing their information if they wish during the debrief. -aims to provide information and help the participant leave the experimental situation in a similar frame of mind as when ppts entered it. -If consent cannot be obtained (eg: field experiment) participants must be fully debriefed afterwards -Sometimes it is impractical to debrief all ppts but in this case all data should be kept anonymous.

Answer 101

Researchers need to be sure info they publish won’t allow their ppts to be identified so they use pseudonyms to keep them anonymous eg: Patient HM. Communication of personal info from one person to another and the trust this will be data protected

Answer 102

Privacy is about persons right to control flow of info about themselves. We expect privacy in certain situations. if the research is in a public space the research will be granted permission as long as it does not invade privacy

Answer 103

Participants have a right to privacy, if this is broken then confidentiality must be maintained.

Answer 104

Ppts should leave the study in the same condition they entered it in. Risk is considered acceptable if it is no greater than what would be experienced in everyday life. If harms caused, researcher should check ppts are in a positive state of health. They should also signpost to relevant services eg: councilling Researcher must also ensure that id vulnerable groups are to be used (children, elderly and disabled). They must receive special care.

Answer 105

Allows for differences in data to be seen more clearly. Used for discrete data, which describes data that’s been divided into catagories. Bars don’t touch eachother which shows that we’re dealing with separate conditions. X axis: condition A and B Y axis: amount of frequency for each category

Answer 106

Bars touch eachother unlike in bar charts Used for continuous data. X axis has equal sized intervals of one category Y axis represents frequency

Answer 107

Represents continuous data Points are connected by lines to show the change in values X axis: IV Y axis: DV

Answer 108

Show assossiatioms between co-variables For correlations X axis: either of the co-variables Y axis: either of the covariables Each point displayed on the graph coincides with the X and Y position of the co-variables

Answer 109

The differnt ways in which the testing of ppts can be **organised in conditions**

Answer 110

+ easy method of recruitment so time saving and less costly -not representative of the whole population so lacks external validity -researcher bias as they control who they select

Answer 111

+ no researcher bias: researcher has no influence over who is picked -time consuming: need to habe a list of members of the population (sampling frame) and then contact those chosen -volunteer bias: ppts can refuse to take past so can end up with an unrepresentative sample

Answer 112

+ avoids researcher bias and usually representative of population -not truely unbiased unless you use a random number generator and then start the systematic sample

Answer 113

+no researcher bias: random selection in each statum + produces representative data due to proportion starta so can generalise results - time consuming to identify strata and contact people from each - complete representation of the target population is not possible as the identified strata can’t reflect all the differences between people of the wider population

Answer 114

+ quick access to willing ppts makes it easy and not time consuming + ppts are willing to take part of more likely to cooperate with the study -volentter bias: their study may attract a particular profile of a person. So generalise with caution -motivation like money could be driving ppts so ppts may not take study seriously, influencing the results

Answer 115

the logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment. Proposed by Popper. states a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue. -successful theories that have been constantly tested and supported simply haven't been proven false yet. -Sciences that can't be proven wrong are known as 'pseudosciences'- a good example is Freud's concepts from the psychodynamic approach like the Oedipus's Complex.

Answer 116

Median Range

Answer 117

Mean Standard deviation

Answer 118

Type of data that is in form of **catagories**. It’s **discrete** - one item can only appear in one category. It **doesn’t enable sensitive analysis** as it doesn’t yield a numerical result for each ppt

Answer 119

Data which is represented in a **ranking form** eg: 1 = hate maths and 10 = loves maths. There’s no equal intervals between each unit Limit: lacks precision as it’s based on the **subjective**opinion of people

Answer 120

Type of data that’s based on numerical scales which include equal units of precisely defined size. Most sophisticated form of data as it’s based on objective measures. Needed for the use of a parametric test

Answer 121

As one variable increases so does the other until a certain point one increases and the other decreases. Eg: Inverted u shape eg: Yerkes Dodson Law showing how anxiety effects EWT

Answer 122

Strengths: Can be used as starting points to assess patterns between co-variables before committing to conduct experiments Quick and economical to carry out Secondary data can be used making it less time consuming Limits: Difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship, only assosaitoms are found between co-variables Third variable problem can be represented - a third variable whoch the researcher is unaware of can be resonposnle for the relationship between co-variables

Answer 123

Yes Directional - shows whether there’s a positive or negitive correlation between co-variables Non directional - only states there will be a correlation

Answer 124

1) The researcher needs a full list of the entire target population. 2) The researcher reads down the list selecting every Nth participant to form the sample (this can be any number for example every 5th, or 10th or 100th name) 3) The process continues until the sample required is chosen.

Answer 125

1) Researcher directly asks any members from within the target population (that they have access to) to take part in the research. 2) Any individuals who agree to take part are added to the sample until the number of participants required is met.

Answer 126

1) Strata/ subgroups are identified along with their proportion in the target population (e.g. gender, ethnicity, education level). 2) Random sampling is then used to select the number of participants required from within each stratum.

Answer 127

Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion Referencing

Answer 128

Provides a way of determining whether hypothesis should be rejected or accepted. It can tell us whether differences or relationships between variables have been found during experiments are statistically significant or if they occurred due to chance

Answer 129

If the study: -looked for a differnce not an assossiation -used a related experimental design - repeated measures or matched pairs -collected nominal data

Answer 130

1) state the hypothesis: both alternative and null 2) record data and work out the sign, -ve if value has decreased, +ve if increased. If value stays the same it’s ignored and the the N adjusted to exclude it 3) find the calculated value for the sign test, S, which is the no. of times the less frequent sign occurs 4) find the critical value of S - use the calculated value N (total no. of values with the ignored values excluded) and p is less than or equal to 0.05 which means there’s a less than 5% probability that the results occurred by chance - if S is less than or equal to the critical value - reject the null, significant differnce - if S is more than or equal to the critical value - accept null, no significant differnce 5) state conclusion, referring to hypothesis mentioning the IV and DV and support your conclusion with the exact values of the - critical value, S, N and p value

Answer 131

Unrelated (IG) chi-square Related (MP and RM): sign test

Answer 132

Chi squared

Answer 133

Unrelated: Mann-Whitney Related: Wilcoxon

Answer 134

Spearman’s rho

Answer 135

Unrelated: unrelated t-test Related: related t-test

Answer 136

Pearson’s R

Answer 137

Whether a significant differnce or correlation exists. Discovered using the calcaued value and the critical value Critical value is worked out from a table of probability values and depends on: 1) whether it’s one tailed (directional) or 2 tailed (nondirectional) 2) the p value 3) N value or the degrees of freedom value

Answer 138

If there’s an R in the name of the statistical test the calculated value has to be greater or equal to the critical value for the result to be significant. If so reject the null hypothesis If there’s no R in the tests name then the calculated value has to be less than or equal to the cortical value to be significant

Answer 139

Stats term about how sure we are about a correlation or differnce existing. If signicsnt, reject null. Null: there’s no differnce/correlation between the conditions Alternative: there’s a differnce/correlation between conditions Significance level of 0.01: P value of 0.01 There’s a 1% possibility that the differnce between the conditions is due to chance

Answer 140

Calculation of how likely it is for an event to happen. 0= statistically impossible 1 = statistically certainty The level of significance in probability is 0.05 So p value is less than or equal to 0.05 Meaning the findings being due to chance is 5% or less so researchers have a 95% confidence level in their results. If there’s any risk attached to the research like a ‘human cost’ eg: climcial drug trials the p value is 0.01 (1%)

Answer 141

Optimistic error / False positive Incorrect rejection of a null hypothesis whoch is actually true. Researchers claim to have found a significant differnce when they actually isn’t any Remedy: Using a more stringent p value (more strict p-value of 0.01 compared to 0.05) to allow less results through

Answer 142

Pessimistic error / false negative Accept the null hypothesis when you shouldn’t. Researchers claim that there’s no significant difference when they actually is one Remedy: Using a less stringent p value (less strict p-value of 0.1 compared to 0.05) to allow more results through, reducing the risk of missing true results.

Answer 143

How what we learn from psychological research influences our country’s economic prosperity. The economy is the state of the regions activities of producing or consuming good and services.

Answer 144

Treatments - cognitive behavioural therapy and rational emotive behavioural therapy for depression, drug therapy for OCD -workers able to return to work

Answer 145

Role of the father - Tiffany Field found fathers can take on the role of being a primary caregiver - mothers can return to work - more flexible working arrangements within families - can maximise their income and effectively contribute to the economy

Answer 146

Social influence leading to social change: minority influence, appealing to NSI, disobedient models - health campaigns - unions strike - make working conditions better - environmental campaigns - like getting companies to reduce their waste and use of non-renewable energy

Answer 147

Eyewitness testimony - how leading questions or post event discussion can affect eyewitness testimony. - led to police using the cognitive interview which reduces wrongful convictions hence reduces waste of money and space in jail

Answer 148

1) The scientific method 2) Experimental control 3) Objectivity 4) Replicability 5) Falsifiability 6) Construction of theories 7) Paradigm shifts

Answer 149

1. Observation - Identifying a phenomenon or problem to study. 2. Question - Formulating a clear and specific question based on the observation. 3. Hypothesis - Proposing a testable and falsifiable explanation or prediction. 4. Experiment - Designing and conducting experiments to test the hypothesis. 5. Data Collection - Gathering and recording results from the experiments. 6. Analysis - Interpreting the data to determine if it supports or refutes the hypothesis. 7. Conclusion – and refining the hypothesis if necessary. 8. Replication - Repeating the process to verify results and ensure reliability.

Answer 150

Use of control variables whilst the IV and DV are operationalized (defined and measurable) Experimental control enables us to avoid extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables to establish causality

Answer 151

- A theory is set of general laws or principles which can explain and predict human behaviour - Theory construction enables prediction to be made which can be translated into hypothesizes - Theories are tested by empirical methods and are refined in the light of evidence - This knowledge allows theory construction and testing to progress through the scientific cycle of enquiry

Answer 152

Kuhn argued science works in stages: - Pre-science - Normal science - Revolutionary science Pre-science: there is a range of views, a range of theories. There is no consensus. People do their own thing. Kuhn believes psychology is at this stage because it lacks a shared set of assumptions there are lots of approaches in psychology) Over time, evidence builds up. This evidence goes against the paradigm, reaching a crisis point. Most scientists don’t want to change their beliefs so ignore the evidence. So shifts back to normal science